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THE MOST COMPLETE WORK ON THE HORSE PUBLISHED. 



EVEKY 



Horse Owners' Cyclopedia. 



THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE; GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS; 
THE POINTS OF THE HORSE, WITH DIRECTIONS HOW TO CHOOSE HIM J THE 
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING, AND THE BEST KIND TO BREED FROM; 
THE TREATMENT OF THE BROOD MARE AND FOAL; RAIS- 
ING AND BREAKING THE COLT; STABLES, AND 
STABLE management; RIDING, DRIVING, 
ETC., ETC. 

DISEASES, AND HOW TO CURE THEM. 

THE PRINCIPAL MEDICINES, AND THE DOSES IN WHICH THEY CAN BE SAFELY AD- 
MINISTERED; ACCIDENTS, FRACTURES, AND THE OPERATIONS 
NECESSARY IN EACH CASE; SHOEING, ETC. 

By J. H. WALSH, F.R.C.S. 
/ 

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE, AND SUGGESTIONS ON THE 
BREEDING AND TRAINING OF TROTTERS. 

By ELLWOOD HARVEY, M.D. 

i 

THE TURF AND TROTTING HORSE OF AMERICA. 
By JOHN ELDERKEN. 

THE PERCHERON HORSE; LIST OF STALLIONS IMPORTED INTO AMERICA FROM THE 
EARLIEST DATES; TABLES OF PEDIGREES OF CELEBRATED TROTTERS, ETC. 

Edited by ROBERT McCLURE, M.D., V.S. 
i / 

Author of the American Gentleman's Stable Guide. 



WITH NEARLY ONE HUNDRED FINE ENGRAVINGS. 



SOLD BY SUBSCRIPTION. 



PHILADELPHIA: 
PORTER & COATES, 822 CHESTNUT STREET. 

1872. 






«,v .«*<> 



Entered, aocording to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by 

PORTER & COATES, 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



KEARS 4 DUSENBERY, STEREOTTPERS. 



H. B. ASHMEAD, PRIDTEU. 



PRE FACE. 



We believe it may be asserted, without fear of contradiction, that 
no book has yet been published, in the English or any other language, 
which even professes to give a complete description of the Natural 
History, Physiology, Pathology, and General Management of the 
Horse, in a form and style suited to the country gentleman of the 
nineteenth century. It is true, that some of these departments are 
adequately described in separate works ; but they are generally written 
in technical language, suited rather to the Veterinary Student than 
for the use and comprehension of the ordinary reader. The writings 
of Percivall in England, and of Girard, Chauveau, and Colin in 
France, contain full and accurate details of the Anatomy and Physi- 
ology of this animal ; while the Structure and Diseases of his Foot 
have been the subjects of various elaborate treatises by Bracy Clark, 
Spooner, Coleman, and Turner, in this country. But in order to 
reach the information which he requires, the reader has to wade 
through many long and wearisome chapters, wholly irrelevant to the 
practical subjects in which he is interested, and he therefore gives up 
the study in disgust as a hopeless task. So, also, in reference to the 
general diseases of the horse, Percivall's " Hippopathology" is a mine 
of information ; but it is so elaborate, and so diffuse in style, that 
it is consequently never or rarely seen on the library shelves of the 
private gentleman. Stable management was well described by Stew- 
art, of Edinburgh, five-and-twenty years ago, and his work still con- 
tinues to be the best manual on this particular subject; but since it 
was written many great changes* have been introduced into general 
use, and it is therefore now somewhat behind the times. For these 
reasons the author of this work has thought that a book, combining 
all the above subjects, treated in a practical manner, and in a style 
popularly intelligible, yet containing the most recent views of eminent 
authorities in veterinary knowledge, would supply a deficiency which 
has long been complained of by all who are interested in the proper 
management of the horse. 

(iii) 



iv PREFACE. 

In order to compress within the limits of one volume the informa- 
tion -which has hitherto heen spread over so many, it has been neces- 
sary to forego all attempts at illustration by anecdote or by records of 
cases ; and the several chapters, therefore, will be found to contain 
only what is absolutely necessary for the elucidation of each subject, 
with the aid of numerous engravings, accurately drawn and carefullj 
engraved after drawings by Barraud, H. Weir, Zwecker, Scott, &c, &c. 

THE AUTHOR. 

In bringing before the American public, this edition of a work 
which has long been acknowledged as the ablest authority on the 
subject in England, the publishers have spared neither time nor 
expense in adapting it in every particular to the requirements of the 
American Farmer and Amateur. There is not a page in the English 
edition but has been carefully revised, some local and purely 
scientific matter of no interest whatever to the American owner of a 
horse has been omitted, late authorities consulted, and every page 
brought down to the present state of knowledge on the subject. This 
was intrusted to the skilful hands of Dr. McClcre, the well-known 
author of "The American Gentleman's Stable Guide." 

The Essay on the American Trotting Horse, by Dr. Ellwood 
Harvey, a gentleman thoroughly conversant with his theme, was 
written at the urgent request of the publishers, and embodying, as 
it does, the study and research of years, will be found a valuable 
addition to the work. 

Our thanks are due to Gen. Welch, Chestnut Hill, Philada. ; Robert 
Bonner, Esq., New York ; C. P. Relf, Esq., Norristown, Pa. ; and 
D. Swigert, Esq., of Spring Station, Ky. ; for their kindness in permit- 
ting us to obtain correct likenesses of the noble animals whose portraits 
appear in these pages, and for the interest they have 6hown in the 
success of this work ; and to Messrs. Schreiber & Son, and Wenderoth, 
Taylor & Brown, of Philada., and Mr. George G. Rockwood, of New 
York, for the excellent photographs they have taken of the celebrated 
horses they represent ; and especially to Messrs. Currer & Ives, of New 
York, for permission to copy the original of the steel frontispiece, so 
splendidly engraved by Whitechurch, and to Messrs. James R. Os- 
good & Co. for permission to reprint Mr. Elderkin's article from the 
" Atlantic Monthly." 

THE AMERICA: PUBLISHERS. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER L 

EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 

PAOJ? 

The Horse of Scripture — The Greek Horse — That of the Romans — The 
Arab of Antiquity — Egyptian, Libyan, Numidian, and Moorish Horses — 
The original British Horse — Ancient methods of using the Horse . . 13 



CHAPTER II. 

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Habits — External Form as indicated by Points — Proportions — Maturity — 
Average Age — Periodical Moulting — Mental Development — Small 
Stomach If 



CHAPTER III. 

THE HORSES OF THE EAST. 

The Barb — The Egyptian Horse — The Horses of Dongola and Abyssinia — 
Other African Horses — The Modern Arab — The Persian Horse — The 
Turkish Horse — Other Asiatic Horses — The Australian Horse . . 30 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE HORSES OF THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE. 

The South American Horse — The Mustang — The Indian Pony — The Cana- 
dian Horse — The Morgan Horse — The American Trotter — The Narragan- 
set Pacer — The American Thorough-bred — The Vermont Cart-Horse — 
The Conestoga Draught-Horse . .... 45 

(V) 



vri CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER V. 

THE THOROUGH-BRED HO/tSE. 

PAIS 

Early Maturity — Object of Encouraging the Breed — Essentials in the 
Thorough-bred — Purity of Blood — External Formation — Height — Color 
— Coat, Mane, and Tail 57 

CHAPTER VI. 

ON THE LOCOMOTIVE ACTION IN THE VARIOUS PACES. 

Natural and Acquired Paces — Distribution of Weight — Attitude assumed 
in Standing — Mode of Progression — The Walk — Trot — Canter — Hand- 
Gallop — Extended Gallop — The Amble — Racking, Pacing, and Running 
— The Paces of the Manege — Leaping, or Jumping . . . .76 

CHAPTER VII. 

THE PRINCIPLES OP BREEDING APPLICABLE TO THE HORSE. 

Theory of Generation — In-and-in Breeding — Out-Crossing, Advantages 
and Disadvantages of each Plan — Causes of a "Hit" — Importance of 
Health and Soundness in both Sire and Dam — Best Age to Breed from — 
Influence of Sire and Dam respectively — Choice of Sire and Dam — The 
kind of Horse most likely to be profitable to the Breeder — Concluding 
Remarks on Breeding 99 

CHAPTER VIII. 

THE BROOD MARE AND HER FOAL. 

The Hovel and Paddock — General Management of the Brood-Mare — Treat- 
ment when in Foal — After Foaling — Early Management of the Foal — 
Weaning and After Treatment of the Foal 117 

CHAPTER IX. 

THE BREAKING OF THE COLT. 

Rarey's Principles and Practice — Ordinary English Method of Breaking for 
the Saddle — Superiority of the Latter when properly carried out — Break- 
ing to Harness 123 

CHAPTER X. 

STABLES. 

Situation and Aspect — Foundations — Stalls and Loose Boxes — Hay Cham- 
ber and Granary — Materials for Floors — Doors and Windows — Drainage 



CONTENTS. Vll 

PAGS 

iind Water Supply — Ventilation and Lighting — Stable Fittings- -Harness 
Room — Coach-House — Servants' Rooms — Ground Plans of Stables — 
Necessity for Airing New Stables 155 



CHAPTER XL 

STABLE MANAGEMENT. 

Theory and Practice of Feeding and Watering — Dressing or Grooming — 
Clipping, Singeing, and Trimming — Use and Application of Bandages — 
Management of the Feet — Daily Exercise — Proper Temperature of the 
Stable — Remedies for Stable Vices and Bad Habits — Preparation for 
Work — Ordinary Sweating — The Turkish Bath — Physic — Final Prepara- 
tion — Treatment after Work — Summering — Care of Saddlery and Har- 
ness 177 



CHAPTER XII. 

KIDING. 

Mounting and Dismounting — The Seat — Management of the Reins — Modes 
of Starting the Horse into his Various Paces — Riding to Hounds — Out- 
door Vices and Bad Habits 230 



CHAPTER XIII. 

CLASSIFICATION OF THE VARIOUS ORGANS, AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKELETON. 

Classification of the Various Organs — Structure of Bone — Of the Skeleton 
in General — The Artificial Skeleton — Number of Bones composing the 
Skeleton — General Anatomy of the Spinal Column — Of the Head and 
Face — Of the Thoracic Arch and Anterior Extremities — Of the Pelvic 
Arch and Hind Extremities — Of the Tail — Of the Fore and Hind Ex- 
tremities considered as Organs of Support and Locomotion . . . 248 

CHAPTER XIV. 

THE TEETH 257 

CHAPTER XV. 

OF THE JOINTS AND MUSCLE — THE TISSUES ENTERING INTO THEIR COMPOSITION. 

''he Joints — Cartilage — Fibrous Tissue — Physiology af Muscle . . . 266 



Vlii CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

THE THORAX. 

PAO* 

Contents of the Thorax — The Blood — General Plan of the Circulation — 
The Veina — Physiology of Respiration 272 

CHAPTER XVII. 

THE ABDOMINAL AND PELVIC TISCERA. 

The Ahdomen and its Contents— Physiology of Digestion— Structure of 
Giands and Physiology of Secretion — Depuration, and its Office in the 
Animal Economy — The Stomach — The Intestines — Liver — Spleen — Pan- 
creas — Kidneys — Pelvis — Bladder — Organs of Generation, Male and 
Female 278 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

THE NERTES AND SPECIAL ORGANS. 

The Nerves— The Organ of Smell— The Eye— The Ear— The Organ of 
Touch— The Foot . . 286 

CHAPTER XIX. 

THE DISEASES AND INJURIES OF BONE. 

General Remarks — Splints — Ringbone and Sidebone — Ossification of the 
Lateral Cartilages — Bone Spavin — Exostosis of the Humerus and Scapula, 
or Shoulder-Joint Lameness — Fistula of the Withers, or Thiselo — Poll 
Evil — Caries of the Jaw — Osteo Sarcoma, or Big Head — Fractures . 297 

CHAPTER XX. 

INJURY AND DISEASES OF THE JOINTS, MUSCLES, AND TENDONS. 

Diseases of Muscle, Tendon, and Ligament — Of Cartilage and Synovial 
Membrane — Inflamed Tendinous Sheaths— Inflamed Bursas Mucosae — 
Strains — Those of the Back and Loins — Of the Shoulder — Of the Knee 
— Of the Fetlock — Of the Coffin Joint — Of the Suspensory Ligaments — 
Of the Back-Sinews — Breaking Down — Strains of the Hip-Joint, Stifle, 
and Hock — Curb — Dislocation — Wounds of Joints . . . . 311 

CHAPTER XXI. 

DISEASES OF THE THORACIC ORGANS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 

General Remarks — Catarrh, or Cold — Influenza, or Distemper — Bronchitis 
— Chronic Cough — Laryngitis, Roaring, Whistling, etc. — Pneumonia and 



CONTENTS. IX 

PAGE 

Congestion of the Lungs — Pleurisy — Pleuro lynia — Phthisip— Broken 
Wind — Thick Wind — Spasm of the Diaphragm — Diseases of the Heart — 
Diseases of the Blood Vessels in the Chest and Nose .... 326 



CHAPTER XXII. 

DISEASES OF THE ABDOMINAL VISCERA AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 

General Remarks — Diseases of the Mouth and Throat — Gastritis — Stomach 
Staggers — Dyspepsia — Bots — Inflammation of the Bowels — Colic — Diar- 
rhoea and Dysentery — Strangulation and Rupture — Calculi in the Bowels 
— Worms — Disease of the Liver — Of the Kidneys — Of the Bladder — Of 
the Organs of Generation ' 350 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

Phrenitis, or Mad Staggers — Epilepsy and Convulsions — Megrims — Rabies, 
Hydrophobia, or Madness — Tetanus, or Lock-jaw — Apoplexy and 
Paralysis — String Halt — Coup de Soleil, or Sun-stroke .... 375 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

DISEASES AND INJURIES OF CERTAIN SPECIAL ORGANS. 

Diseases of the Ear — Inflammation of the Eye — Cataract — Amaurosis — 
Buck-eye — Surfeit — Hidebound — Mange — Lice — Mallenders and Sallen- 
ders — Warbles, Sitfasts, and Harness-Galls — Grubs — Bites and Stings of 
Insects — Swelled Legs — Chapped Heels — Grease, or Scratches — Warts 
— Corns — Sandcrack — False Quarter — Quittor — Thrush — Canker — La- 
minitis — Seedy Toe — Contraction of the Foot — Navicular Disease — Acci- 
dents to the Legs and Feet 383 

CHAPTER XXV. 

CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES. 

Fevers — Anasarca — Glanders — Farcy 417 

CHAPTER XXVI. 

SHOEING 422 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

OPERATIONS. 

Administration of Chloroform — Methods of Confining the Horse — Bleeding 
— Firing — Setons and Rowels — Blistering — Castration — Docking and 
Nicking — Unnerving — Reduction of Hernia — Administration cf Phy3io 
— Clysters — Back-Raking 432 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

THE PRINCIPAL MEDICINES, AND THE DOSES IN WHICH THEY CAN SAFELY BR 
ADMINISTERED. 

PAGB 

Alteratives — Anodynes — Antiseptics — Anti-Zumins — Aperients — Astrin- 
gents — Blisters — Caustics, or Cauteries — Clysters, or Injections — Deter- 
gents — Diuretics — Embrocations, or Liniments — Febrifuges — Lotions, or 
Washes — Physic Balls and Drenches — Stimulants — Stomachics — Tonics 
— Traumatics — Vermifuges, or Worm Medicines 448 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

LIST OP IMPORTED HORSES 461 



Essay on the American Trotting Horse, and Suggestions on the 
Breeding and Training op Trotters 467 



Pedigrees op Celebrated Trotting Horses . . . 507-523 
The History of the Turf and Trotting Horse of America . . . 525 
The Percheron Horse 557 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 



FULL PAGE ENGRAVING ON STEEL. 

American Girl and Goldsmith Maid Frontispiece 

(by permission of Messrs. Currer & Ives, N. Y.) 

FULL PAGE ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. 

Mambrino Pilot. From a painting from life, by E. Troye 24 

Lexington. From a drawing from life, by E. Troye 54 

Hambletonian (Rysdyk's). From a photograph from life, by Glover 102 

Flora Temple and her Colt. From a photograph from life, by Schreiber & Son 126 

Elevation of Garden Front of Stable 156 

Ground Plan of Stable 176 

Skeleton of the Horse 251 

Diseases of the Horse 297 

Section of the Abdomen and Pelvis, with the Intestines and Liver removed — 

Longitudinal Section of the Thorax, etc 350 

Lord Clyde, a Clydesdale Stallion 422 

Ethan Allen. From a photograph from life, by Schreiber & Son 467 

Dexter. From a photograph from life, by Schreiber & Son 525 

Alene, a Percheron Mare, from life 555 

PAGE 

Points of the Horse 20 

Oblique Shoulder 22 

Upright Shoulder 22 

Proportions of the various Points 27 

The Godolphin Arabian 31 

Chaban, an Arabian Stallion 35 

The Canadian Horse 47 

Conestoga Draught-Horse 56 

Fisherman — an English Thorough-bred 62 

Saunterer — an English Thorough-bred 64 

Starting for the Walk 80 

Received Interpretation of the Walk 81 

Exceptional Mode of Starting 82 

Action in the True Trot 88 

The Canter 90 

Received Interpretation of the Gallop , 91 

Correct View of the Gallop 94 

Mare and Foal 125 

Rarey's Leg-strap, No. 1 131 

Rarey's Leg-strap, No. 2 132 

Cruiser with the Leg-strap and Surcingle on..„ 132 

Cruiser in the Power of his Master 133 

The Horse bounding on his Hind Legs 134 

The Horse on his Knees, about to fall on his Side 1-5 

(Xi) 



xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PA81 

The Horse tamed 138 

Rarey's Halter or Bridle for Colts 142 

Door for Loose Box '. 161 

Ventilating Windows 162 

Section of Catch-pit 163 

Iron-sdrface Gutter 165 

Ventilating Shaft 167 

Head of Shaft 167 

The Hanging Bail 168 

Iron-fittings for Stalls and Loose Box 172 

Ground-plan of a Racing or Hunting Stable 175 

Ground Plan of a Stable for Four or Five Horses 176 

Bar-muzzle for Crib-biters 203 

Remedy for tearing the Clothes 205 

Ground-plan of a Turkish Bath for Horses 214 

The Hunter turned out to Grass 226 

Ready 230 

Profile View of the Bones of the Head and Face 254 

Section of Incisor 257 

Three- year Old Mouth 259 

Mouth of the Colt at Four-and-a-half Years 260 

Upper Nippers and Tushes at Five Years Old., 261 

Lower Nippers and Tushes at Five Years Old 262 

Lower Nippers and Tushes of a Six-year Old Horse 262 

Upper Nippers in the Eight-year Old Horse 263 

Lower Nippers and Left Tush of a very old Horse, the Right having fallen out 264 

Sectional Plan of Thorax and its Contents (through the Girth-place) 272 

General Plan of the Circulation 275 

Section of the Parts entering into the Composition of she Foot and the Fetlock and 

Pastern-joints 291 

The Hoof 292 

Front View of the Foot, with the Hoof removed 292 

The Under Surface of the Foot 292 

View of Vessels of the Foot, injected 294 

View of the Arteries of the Frog and Sole, injected 295 

Group of Bots attached to the Stomach ; 356 

Section of the Foot in confirmed Laminitis 405 

A Sound Fore Foot prepared for the Shoe 426 

Shoeing 428 

Seton Needles, One-quarter Size 439 

Clams lined with Vulcanized India-rubber 442 

The Ecraseur 443 

Docking-knife 444 

Flora Temple trotting 489 



> 



The Horse. 




CHAPTER I. 
EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 

The Horse of Scripture — The Greek Horse — That of the Romans 
— The Arab of Antiquity — Egyptian, Libyan, Numidian, and 
Moorish Horses — The original British Horse — Ancient methods 
of using the Horse. 

THE HORSE OF SCRIPTURE. 

| HE earliest record of the Horse which we possess 
is in the Old Testament, where we first find him infer- 
entially mentioned in the thirty-sixth chapter of Gen- 
esis, as existing in the wilderness of Idumea about 
the beginning of the sixteenth century before Christ. 
Many commentators, however, render the word which is translated 
" mules " in our version, as " waters," and thus a doubt is thrown 
upon the correctness of the inference which is thence drawn. 
Moreover, in the thirty-second chapter of Genesis, camels, goats, 
sheep, cattle and asses are all severally alluded to, but no horses ; 
so that it is highly probable that in the time of Jacob, whose de- 
parture from Laban is there narrated, horses were unknown to the 
Israelites. It was not until after their arrival in Egypt that the 
horse is clearly alluded to. Jacob, on his deathbed, leaves us no 
room to doubt his knowledge of the horse, and of its being domes- 
ticated, for he speaks of the " horse and his rider " in the same 
sentence. We need, therefore, go no further for a proof of the 
Jarly existence of this animal in Egypt, and may assume that 
there were large numbers of them there, for Pharaoh is recorded 
to have taken " six hundred chosen chariots, and all the horses," 
to pursue the Israelites to the Red Sea. It is generally supposed 
from the omission of all mention of horses while the Israelites 
were in Arabia, that this country, which has since become so cele- 
brated for them, was at that time entirely without them. The 
proof, however, is entirely of a negative character, though I con- 
fess that it is as strong as any of that nature can well be. Indeed, 
2 (13) 



14 THE HORSE. 

sis hundred years later, Arabia could not have been remarkable in 
any way for her horses, for Solomon, while he resorted to her for 
silver and gold, mounted his cavalry from Egypt. Yet the latter 
country could scarcely be the native land of the Horse, not pos- 
sessing the extensive plains which are peculiarly suited to his ex- 
istence in a wild state, and it is considered probable that he was 
introduced from the central regions of Africa, which are undoubt- 
edly the native plains of the Quagga, the Zebra, and some other 
congeners of the Horse; but where, ourii ftsly enough, he is not 
now found in a wild state. Thence he would naturally find his 
way into Egypt, and through Arabia to Persia. Tartary and Greece, 
ultimately reaching Great Britain ; but in what century he was 
introduced there we are quite at a loss to conjecture. 

THE GREEK HORSE. 

Of the precise form of the Horse of Scripture we have no 
account, beyond the glowing language of Job, which will apply to 
almr>.it any variety possessing the average spirit of the species. 
The horse of the Greeks is far better known, being handed down 
to us in the writings of Xenophon, and preserved in the marble 
friezes of the Parthenon, which are now removed to our own Na- 
tional Museum. The above Greek writer, in giving his advice on 
the purchase of a horse, says, " On examining the feet, it is befit- 
ting first to look to the horny portion of the hoofs, for those horses 
which have the horn thick are far superior in their feet to those 
which have it thin. Nor will it be well, if one fail next to observe 
whether the hoofs be upright both before and behind, or low and 
flat to the ground ; for high hoofs keep the frog at a distance from 
the earth, while the flat tread with equal pressure on the soft and 
hard parts of the foot, as is the case with bandy-legged men. And 
Simon justly observes that well-footed horses can be known by the 
sound of their tramp, for the hollow hoof rings like a cymbal when 
it strikes the solid earth. But having begun from below, let us 
ascend to the other parts of the body. It is needful then, that 
the parts above the hoof and below the fetlocks be not too erect 
like those of the goat, for legs of this kind being stiff and inflex- 
ible, are apt to jar the rider, and are more liable to inflammation. 
The bones must not, however, be too low and springy, for in that, 
case, the fetlocks are liable to be abraded and wounded, if the 
horse be gallopped over clods or stones. The bones of the shanks 
should be thick, for these are the columns which support the body, 
but they should not have the veins and flesh thick likewise ; for 
if they have, when the horse shall be gallopped in difficult ground, 
they will necessarily be filled with blood, and will become varicose, 
so that the shanks will be thickened, and the skin be distended 
and relaxed from the bone ; and when this is the exse, it often 



THE 3REEK HORSE. 15 

follows that the back sinew gives way and renders the horse lame. 
But if the horse, whan in action, bend his knees flexibly at a walk, 
you may judge that he will have his legs flexible when in full 
canter ; for all horses as they increase in years increase in the flex- 
ibility of the knee. And flexible goers are esteemed highly, and 
with justice, for such horses are much less liable to blunder or to 
stumble than those which have rigid, unbending joints. But if 
the arms below the shoulder-blades be thick and muscular, they 
appear stronger and handsomer, as is the case also with a man. 
The breast also should be broad, as well for beauty as for strength, 
and because it causes a handsomer action of the fore-legs, which 
do not then interfere, but are carried wide apart. And again, the 
neck ought not to be set on like that of a boar, horizontally from the 
chest, but like that of a game-cock, should be upright towards the 
crest, and slack towards the flexure ; and the head, being long, 
should have a small and narrow jaw-bone, so that the neck shall be 
in front of the rider, and that the eye shall look down on what is 
before the feet. A horse thus made will be the least likely to run 
violently away, even if he be very high-spirited, for horses do not 
attempt to run away by bringing in, but by thrusting out, their 
heads and necks. It is also very necessary to observe whether the 
mouth be fine or hard on both sides, or on one or the other. For 
horses which have not both jaws equally sensitive, are likely to be 
hard-mouthed on one side or the other. And it is better that a 
horse should have prominent than hollow eyes, for such a one will 
see to a greater distance. And widely-opened nostrils are far 
better for respiration than narrow, and they give the horse a fiercer 
aspect; for when one stallion is enraged against another, or if he 
become angry while being ridden, he expands his nostrils to their 
full width. And the loftier the crest, and smaller the ears, the 
more horse-like and handsome is the head rendered ; while lofty 
withers give the rider a surer seat and produce a firmer adhesion 
between the body and shoulder. A double loin is also softer to sit 
upon, and pleasanter to look at, than if it be single; and a deep 
side, rounded toward the belly, renders the horse easier to sit, and 
stronger, and more easy to keep in condition. The shorter and 
broader the loin, the more easily will the horse raise his fore-' 
quarters and collect his hind-quarters under him in going. These] 
points, moreover, cause the belly to appear the smaller; which, if 
it be large, at once injures the appearance of the animal, and ren-' 
ders him weaker and less manageable. The quarters should be 
broad and fleshy, in order to correspond with the sides and chest) 
and, should they be entirely firm and solid, they would be the 
lighter in the gallop, and the horse would be the speedier. But 
if he should have his buttocks separated under the tail by a broad 
line, he will bring his hind legs under him with a wider space be- 



16 THE HORSE. 

tween them, and, so doing, he will have a prouder and stronger 
gait and action, and will in all respects be the better on them." 

Here we have described, in most exact terms, a cobby but spirited 
and corky horse, with a light and somewhat peculiar carriage of 
the head and neck, just as we see represented in the Elgin marbles 

THE ROMAN HORSE. 

Of the Roman Horse we know far less than of that of the 
G-reeks ; but the fact of its inferiority to those of the surrounding 
nations is established, for no sooner were they brought into col- 
lision with the cavalry of Macedonia and Epirus than they suc- 
cumbed. This could only be owing to the quadruped, for the 
Roman foot-soldier was still unmatched. Caesar depended for his 
cavalry upon Gallic horses, which were able to ride down the Ro- 
man horses of his rival Pompey without the slightest difficulty. 
So also Crassus was unable to make head in Asia against the Par- 
thian horse ; and from his day until British horses were trans- 
ported to Oriental soil, the superiority of Asiatic horses remained 
undisputed. 

THE ARAB OF ANTIQUITY. 

The Arab of the present day is said by his countrymen to 
be the same in form, in courage, and in endurance, with the horse 
which existed in Arabia before the time of Christ. I have shown 
that there is every reason to believe that the Israelites who dwelt 
in Arabia had no horses in the time of Jacob, and therefore it is 
scarcely likely that this variety could have arrived at its present 
state of excellence much before the commencement of the Chris- 
tian era. But beyond the traditional accounts which are preserved 
in the various tribes, there is no means of arriving at the truth, 
and they are to be regarded with considerable suspicion. Buffon 
comes to the conclusion, nevertheless, that Arabia is the birthplace 
of this animal, and his opinions are followed by a host of subse- 
quent writers ; but I have already given the reasons for the con- 
trary conclusion. The dry nature of the country, and the scanti- 
ness of herbage, show that in a wild state the horse could hardly 
exist there, and that it is only by the care and superintendence of 
man that the Arabian horse has become so famous. 

EGYPTIAN, LIBYAN, NUMIDIAN, AND MOORISH HORSES. 

The Egyptian Horse is handed down to us on some of the 
sculptures found in the ruins of Nineveh ; the carvings of which 
are in a high state of preservation, and are very elaborate and 
spirited. Even the superficial veins are carefully rendered ; and 
hence we may place some reliapce upon the fidelity of the por- 
traiture. In all these bas-reliefs the animal is represented with a 



ANCIENT METHODS OF USING THE HORSE. 17 

larg and coarse head, a high crest, and a heavy, lumbering body, 
not very dissimilar to the Flemish horse of the nineteenth century. 
Op the Libyan, Numidian, and Moorish horses, which are 
alluded to by classic writers, we know little beyond the cursory 
description of iElian, who says that they were slenderly made, 
and carried no flesh. 

THE ORIGINAL BRITISH HORSE. 

The nature of the original stock which formed the found- 
ation of the modern European horse is extremely doubtful. In 
Great Britain horses' bones are found in caves which are of ex- 
treme antiquity, but they do not define with any certainty the 
form of the original British horse, nor can we, with certainty, 
arrive at the exact era at which the animals to which they be- 
longed lived and died. It is, however, an ascertained fact that 
when the Romans invaded Great Britain they found the people in 
possession of horses, and using them for their chariots as well as 
for the purposes of riding. After the irruption of the Goths, and 
the commencement of the dark ages, we have no reliable history 
to guide us, and we are left to grope in the dark from the fourth 
century, when Vegetius wrote on the veterinary art, until the 
time of the Stuarts, when attention was first paid to the improve- 
ment of the breed of horses in this country. 

ANCIENT METHODS OF USING THE HORSE. 

The mode op using the horse adopted by the ancients was at 
first by harnessing him to a rude chariot, without springs. In 
course of time, the grooms who took care of him found that they 
could manage him while on his back without the aid of the saddle 
and bridle, which are comparatively modern inventions. Hence, 
we see the horse represented in the Elgin marbles as ridden with- 
out either the one or the other ; and there is also abundant written 
testimony in support of this mode of equitation being practised by 
the early Greeks. This ingenious people, however, invented the 
snaffle-bridle, and both rode and drove with its aid, after the estab- 
lishment of the Olympian games, in which chariot races formed an 
essential feature. The curb-bit was invented by the Romans, or, 
at all events, was first used by them ; but both that people and the 
Greeks were ignorant of the use of the stirrup, and either vaulted 
on their horses, or used the back of a slave as a stepping-stone, or 
sometimes had recourse to a short ladder for the purpose. The 
earliest period when it can be proved that the stirrup was in use 
was in the time of the Norman invasion of this country. The 
incidents of this event in history were recorded on the Bayeux 
tapestry by the wife of William the Conqueror, and on this the 
stirrup was depicted, according to the authority of Berenger, as a 
2* B 



18 THE HORSE. 

part of the trappings of the horse. Shoeing was not practised by 
either the Greeks or Romans, and only in cases of lameness was 
the foot defended by a sandal, which, however, was sometimes 
tipped with iron. 

Until some time after the installation op the Olympian 
Games the use of the horse was confined to war and the chase 
These games were held every four years, and are supposed to have 
commenced about 774 years before Christ, and as it was not until 
the twenty-third Olympiad that the horse was introduced in the 
arena, the birth of horse-racing may be fixed at about the year 680 
B.C. At first the horses were ridden, and the distance was about 
four miles, but in the twenty-fifth Olympiad the chariot was intro- 
duced, and after this time became the prevailing instrument of 
testing the speed and powers of the Grecian horse. Here, also, 
the distance was about four miles, but as a pillar was to be rounded 
several times, the race depended quite as much on the skill of the 
charioteer as on the qualities of his horses. 



CHAPTER II. 
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 



Habits — External Form as indicated by Points — Proportions — Ma- 
turity — Average Age — Periodical Moulting — Mental Develop- 
ment — Small Stomach. 

HABITS. 

The Habits of the horse in a wild or free state, are similar to 
those of most of the gregarious and graminivorous animals. That 
is to say, he places his safety in flight; but when compelled to make 
a stand against any of the larger carnivora, he fights strongly with 
his heels and teeth. In all countries he feeds upon grass (green, 
or dried as hay), straw, or grain; in addition to which articles may 
be placed camel's milk, which is used occasionally in the deserts 
of Arabia, when the usual supply of food is altogether deficient. 
In a free state, where the horse has to travel far for his food, he 
becomes inured to fatigue, and is able to make long journeys, with- 
out the training which the domesticated animal requires. Thus 
the South American and Californian horses, immediately after 
being taken with the lasso, are able to carry their riders for e ixty 
or seventy miles on end at a fast pace, suffering, of course, from 
the unaccustomed pressure of the saddle, but not otherwise the 
worse for their exertions. The walk and gallop are the only na- 
tural paces of the wild hcrse ; the trot and canter bein" acquired, 



EXTERNAL FORM. 19 

though to some extent exhibited by the domesticated horse before 
breaking, and evidently the result of the tendency which is always 
displayed to hand down from one generation to another habits 
which are not natural to the species. 

EXTEKNAL FORM, AS INDICATEL BY POINTS. 

The anatomy of this animal will form the subject of a special 
division of this book, but the external form may now be discussed 
with propriety. By horsemen in general this is considered under 
certain subdivisions, which are called " points," and which are 
severally represented by figures in the outline on the following page. 

The relative proportions of, and exact shape desirable in, 
each of these points, vary considerably in the several breeds. 
Thus, when speed and activity are essential, an oblique shoulder- 
blade is a sine qua non ; while for heavy harness it can scarcely 
be too upright, enabling the pressure of the collar to be more easily 
borne, and allowing the animal to exert his strength at right an- 
gles to its long axis. Many men are good judges of hunters and 
hacks, but are almost wholly ignorant of the qualities desirable in 
a coach or cart-horse. There are some elements, however, which 
are wanted in any horse, such as big hocks and knees, flat legs 
with large sinews, open jaws and full nostrils. It will, therefore, 
be necessary to describe the points of each breed ; but I shall here 
give those which are always to be attended to as being of import- 
ance in any kind, whether used for racing or hunting, for the road 
or for agricultural purposes. 

Taking first the head : — It should be known that the vo- 
lume of brain contained within it determines the courage and 
other mental qualities of the individual. Now as, cseteris paribus, 
size is power, so without a wide forehead (which part marks the 
seat of the brain) you cannot expect a full development of those 
faculties known as courage, tractability, good temper, &c. The 
size of the muzzle is partly regarded as an element of beauty, and 
partly as a sign of high breeding. Hence, in the cart-horse, a 
coarse jaw and thick muzzle are not regarded. A large and patent 
nostril cannot be dispensed with in horses intended for fast work, 
and should be desired even in the cart-horse, for in drawing heavy 
loads on a hot day, his breathing may be rendered almost as labo- 
rious as that of the highly-tasked racehorse or hunter. So also 
with the jaw, if there is not ample width between the two sides for 
the development and play of the larynx and windpipe, the wind is 
sure to be affected, and, in addition, the head cannot be nicely 
bent on the neck. A defect in this last point is the usual cause 
of that straight and inelegant setting on of the head which is so 
common, and which the practised horseman avoids, as alike un- 
sightly and prejudicial to the wind and the mouth; for a horse 



20 



THE HORSE. 




POINTS OF THE HORSE. 



HEAD. 

Mnzzle. 

Nostril. 

Forehead. 

Jaw. 

Poll. 

NECK. 

6. Ores'. 

Thropple or windpipo 

PORE-QUARTER. 

8. Shoulder-blade. 

Point of shoulder. 

Bosom or breast. 

11. True-arm. 

Elbow. 

Forearm (arm). 

Knee. 

Cannon-bone. 

Back sinew. 

Fetlock or pastern-joint. 

Coronet. 

Hoof or foot. 

Heel. 



BODY OR MTDDLEPIECE. 

21. Withers. 

22. Back. 



23. 23. Ribs (forming together the bar- 

rel or chest). 

24. 21. The circumference of the chcsl 

at this point, called the girth 

25. The loins. 

26. The croup. 

27. The hip. 

28. The flank. 

29. The sheath. 

30. The root of the dock or tail. 

THE HIND-QUARTER. 

31. The hip-joint, round, or whirl-bone. 

32. The stifle-joint. 

33. 33. Lower thigh or gaskin. 

34. The quarters. 

35. The hock. 

36. The point of the hock. 

37. The curb place. 

38. The cannon-bone. 

39. The back sinew. 

40. Pastern or fetlock-joint. 

41. Coronet. 

42. Foot or hoof. 

43. Heel. 

44. Spavin-place. 



POINTS OF THE HORSE. 21 

which cannot give way to the pressure of the bit is sure to become 
dull in his mouth, and therefore unpleasant to ride or drive. The 
eye is to be examined with a twofold purpose, firstly, as an index 
of the temper, the nature of which is marked by the expression 
of this organ ; and secondly, in reference to its present state of 
soundness, and the probability of its continuing healthy. A full 
and clear eye, with soft, gazelle-like expression, is scarce'y ever 
associated with a bad temper, and will most frequently continue 
sound, if the management of the horse to which it belongs is 
proper in itself. The ear should be of medium size, not too small, 
nor too large, nor should it be lopped, though many good lop-eared 
horses have been known, and some very superior breeds, like that 
of the celebrated Melbourne, are notorious for this defect. 

The Neck should be of moderate length, all beyond a certain 
dimension being waste, and even a moderate-sized head at the end 
of an extremely long lever being too much for the muscles to sup- 
port. It should come out full and muscular, with a sweep between 
the withers and the bosom, and should gradually diminish till it 
runs into the head, with an elegant bend just behind the ear. A 
very narrow throat suddenly bent a', the upper part, marked as the 
thropple, is apt to be connected with roaring, and on that account 
is objected to by horsemen. 

In the Fore-quarters, there are several points to be atten- 
tively examined, and among these, the shoulder is regarded as of 
most consequence, when the horse under consideration is intended 
for the saddle. It is evident that, unless there is length of the 
blade, and also of the true arm, there cannot be a full surface for 
the attachment and play of the muscles, nor can there be the same 
amount of spring to take off the jar which follows each footfall. 
The straighter the angle formed by the long axis of each of these 
bones, the less spring there will be. So, also, if the angle is not 
sufficient, the muscles of the shoulder-blade will not thrust forward 
the true arm, nor will the latter be sufficiently clothed with 
muscles (without being loaded) to act on the fore-arm, commonly 
known by the horseman as the arm. Hence it is found, that with 
an upright shoulder, not only is the stride in all the paces short 
and the action stumpy, but there is not that elastic movement 
which enables the horse to carry his body along rapidly and evenly, 
without rising alternately behind and before, and thereby jarring 
himself or his rider. On the other hand, the upright shoulder, 
loaded with a thick mass of muscles, is useful in the cart-horse, 
and to a certain extent also, in the carriage-horse, in both of which 
the pressure of the collar requires a steady and comparatively 
motionless surface to bear it. The difference between the two 
extremes of oblique and upright shoulders is well illustrated in 
the accompanying woodcut, in which It will be seen that in th« 



22 



THE HORSE. 



former the angle between the blade (a) ani the true arm (b) is 
very considerable, while in the latter it is much less. Hence it 
results, that when the muscles of the blade bring the axis of the 
arm into nearly the same line with its own axis, the forearm (e) in 
the oblique shoulder will be thrust forward and raised to a greater 
degree than in the upright formation, as is shown in the engraving 
in the parts represented by dotted lines (d e). It follows, there- 





OBLIQUE SHOULDER. 



UPRIGHT SHOULDER. 



fore, that horses intended to have high, and at the same time for- 
ward action, should have oblique shoulders, for without them they 
will almost to a certainty either have very mean and low action, 
or, if they do bend their knees, they will put their feet down 
again nearly on the same place as they took them from, which pe- 
culiarity we so often see displayed in the cart breed, or those 
nearly allied to it. This is one of the most important uses of the 
obliquity of the shoulder-blade as it seems to me, and one which 
has not been generally admitted by writers on this branch of the 
subject, though all are ready to admit that in some way or other 
this formation is essential to good action. Another reason for the 
obliquity of the shoulder in the riding-horse, is that without it the 
saddle is not kept back in its proper place, and the horseman's 
weight being thus thrown too forward, the action of the fore- 
quarter is impeded. Mere obliquity, however, is not sufficient for 
this purpose ; for, without a proper development of muscle, the 
blade itself will not keep the saddle in its place. If, therefore, 



POINTS OF THE HORSE. 23 

there is a hollow just behind the top of the blade, even if this is 
slanting enough, you must expect the saddle to slip forward, and 
should, in all doubtful cases, be careful to put one on before con- 
eluding a purchase. The point of the shoulder should be well 
developed, but not showing any rough protuberances, which are 
equally objectionable with a flat or ill-developed point. The length 
of the true arm is mainly dependent upon that of the blade ; but 
sometimes, when this is oblique enough, the true arm is short and 
upright, and the elbow stands under, or only a little behind, the 
shoulder point. This is a very faulty conformation, and is seldom 
attended with good action. The chief defect in the elbow is seen 
when it turns inwards, and rubs so closely against the ribs that the 
finger can hardly be insinuated between them and it. Here the 
elbow is said to be tied or confined, and the horse is very apt to 
turn hi6 toes out; while the opposite formation is indicated by 
turned-in, or " pigeon" toes, and turned-out elbows, frequently 
accompanying long-standing rheumatism of the shoulders. It 
does sometimes happen, however, that the toes are turned in or 
out without affecting the elbow, but this is an exception to the 
rule. A long and muscular fore-arm is a sure accompaniment of 
strong and sweeping action, and should be carefully prized; in 
other respects there is little to be noted here. Next comes the 
knee, which should be broad, and when looked at from the front 
should be much wider than the limb above and below. It should 
taper off backwards to a comparatively thin edge, and should have 
a good development of the pisiform bone, which projects back- 
wards at its upper part. The leg, immediately below the knee, 
should be as large as any other part, and not " tied in" there, 
which indicates a weakness of this part. A bending of the knee 
backwards is called a " calf-knee," and is not objected to in cart- 
horses, in which it is by no means uncommon ; but it is very apt 
to lead to strains of this joint in the racehorse or hunter. A knee 
naturally bending somewhat forward is much preferred by good 
judges, though, when it is the result of over-work, it is almost 
equally to be avoided with the calf-knee. Flat, and at the same 
time large, cannon-bones, without gumminess, are of great import- 
ance, and if attended with a full-sized suspensory ligament, and 
with strong, clean, and free back sinews, the leg is to be considered 
faultless. The fetlock-joint should be of good size and clean, 
whilst the pasterns should form an angle with the ground, of be- 
tween forty-five and sixty degrees. Lastly, the foot should be well 
formed ; but the construction of this part being hereafter more 
fully described, I shall omit its consideration here. 

In the Mlddlepiece the withers come first under notice. It 
is usual to desire them high and thin, but they are very commonly 
too much developed, and if the bony processes stand up like the 
edge of a razor, without muscle on them, they are to be regarded 



24 THE HORSE. 

as objectionable rather than otherwise. The inexperienced horse- 
man is apt to consider the existence of high withers as a sure sign 
that the saddle will be carried well back, but there are some horses 
whose withers are the greatest annoyance to the rider, for having 
upright and short shoulder-blades, together with high withers, the 
saddle rides forward upon the latter, and chafes them in spite of 
all the padding which can be introduced. In looking at this point, 
I believe the purchaser should almost entirely disregard it, except- 
ing to take care that it is not too high for the formation and posi- 
tion of the shoulder-blades. If these are long, and therefore 
slanting, and especially if in addition to a proper position of the 
bones they are furnished with plenty of muscle, the withers may 
be disregarded, and the action may be expected to be good even if 
they are so low as to show no rise between the neck and the back. 

The volume of the chest is the measure not only of the capacity 
of the lungs, but of that of the large organs of digestion. Hence, 
unless there is a middlepiece of proper size, the wind is seldom 
good, and the stamina of the individual will scarcely ever be suffi- 
cient to bear hard work. But there is a limit to the development 
of this part in those breeds which are required to move with much 
velocity, where weight is a great object; and if the body of the 
racehorse or hunter was as heavy as that of the drayhorse, the 
speed would be greatly reduced, and the legs would give way 
during the first severe gallop. So also, a wide chest interferes 
with the free and rapid action of the shoulders and arms as they 
glide on the ribs ; and an open bosom is almost always fatal to high 
speed. In the racehorse and hunter, therefore, capacity of chest 
must be obtained by depth rather than width ; while in the cart- 
horse, a wide chest and a frame roomy in all directions is desired, 
so as to give good wind, and, at the same time, enable the animal 
to keep up his flesh while working eight or nine hours per day. 
For light, quick draught, a formation intermediate between the two 
is the proper one; the large frame of the cart-horse being too heavy 
for the legs to bear at a fast pace, and leading to their rapid de- 
struction in trotting over our modern hard roads. The capacity 
of the lungs is marked by the size of the chest at the girth; but 
the stamina will depend upon the depth of the back ribs, which 
should be especially attended to. 

A short back, with plenty of ground covered nevertheless, is 
the desideratum of every practised horseman. Unless the mea- 
surement from the shoulder point to the back of the quarters is 
somewhat greater than the height at the withers, the action is 
confined, especially in the gallop, for the hind legs cannot be 
brought sufficiently forward on account of the interference of the 
fore-quarter; and, indeed, from the want of play in the back, they 
are generally too much crippled in that respect. A horse " short 
above and long below " is the perfection of shape in this particular, 



POINTS OF THE HORSE. 25 

but lie is not very commonly met with. Where length below is 
seen, there is generally too much space between the last rib and 
the hip, while, on the other hand, coupled with a short back, we 
too often see the legs all "jumped up together," and the action 
short and stumpy. Next to these points in the middlepiece it is 
important to pay attention to the upper line of the back, which 
should bend down a little behind the withers, and then swell out 
very gently to the junction with the loins, which can hardly be 
too wide and muscular. The inexperienced eye will often be 
deceived by the hips, for if these are narrow the muscles rise above 
them, and make the loin and back look stronger than they really 
are, the contrary being the case where the hips are wide and 
ragged. This latter formation, though not so elegant as the level 
hip, is prized by the man who wishes to be carried well to hounds, 
and he will jump at a horse which would be passed over with con- 
tempt by the tyro as " a great raw-boned brute." A slightly-arched 
loin is essential to the power of carrying weight ; a much-arched, 
or "hog" back, is almost sure to give uneasy action from its want 
of elasticity. 

In examining the hind-quarter, so much depends upon the 
breed, and the purposes to which the animal is to be put, that only 
a few general remarks can be given. Thus, for high speed, there 
should be plenty of length in the two bones which unite at the 
stifle-joint, without which the stride must be more or less limited 
in extent. The exact position of the hip-joint not being easily 
detected, the tyro has some difficulty in estimating the length from 
it to the stifle-joint, but he can readily measure the length from 
the root of the tail, either with his eye or with a tape, if he cannot 
depend upon his organ of sight. In a flat outline this will come 
to twenty-four inches in a horse of fifteen hands three inches, but 
measured round the surface it will be two inches more. Again, 
the lower thigh, or gaskin, should be of about the same length ; but 
if measured from the stifle to the point of the hock, it will be fully 
twenty-eight inches in a well-made horse of high breeding. These 
measurements, however, will be much greater in proportion than 
those of the cart-horse, who requires strength before all things, 
and whose stride is of no consequence whatever. In him, the 
length of the upper, or true thigh is generally as great as that of the 
thoroughbred, but the lower thigh, is much shorter, and the horse 
stands with a much straighter hind leg, and consequently with his 
hocks making a very slight angle. Muscular quarters and gaskin^ 
are desirable in all breeds ; for without strong propellers, no kind 
of work to which the horse is put can be duly performed. The 
judge of a horse generally likes to look at the quarters behind, so 
as to get a good view of their volume, and unless they come close 
together, and leave no hollow below the anus, he suspects that 
3 



26 THE HORSE. 

there is a want of constitution, and rejects the animal on that 
account. But not only are muscles of full size required, but there 
must be strong joints to bear the strain which these exert, and one 
of the most important of all the points of the horse is the hock. 
This should be of good size, but clean and flat, without any gum- 
miness or thoroughpins, and with a good clean point standing clear 
of the rest of the joint; the " curby place" and the situation of 
spavin should be free from enlargement ; but to detect these dis- 
eases a considerable amount of practice is required. Lastly, the 
hocks should be well let down, which depends upon the length of 
the thigh, and insures a short cannon-bone. The pasterns and 
feet should be formed in correspondence with those of the fore 
extremity, to which I have already alluded. 

Such are the recognised points to be desired in the horse; but in 
spite of the general opinion of good judges being in favor of them, 
as I have described, no one can predicate with certainty that a horse 
possessing them all in perfection will have a corresponding degree 
of action out of doors. No one who has bought many horses will 
be content with an inspection in the stable, even if the light is as 
good as that of the open air, for he well knows that there is often 
a vast difference between the estimate of the value of a horse which 
he forms indoors and out. Much of this depends upon the temper 
of the individual, for if he is dull and heavy he will not " make a 
good show," though still he may be capable of being sufficiently 
excited by hounds, and many such horses are invaluable hunters. 
Independently, however, of this element, it will be sometimes found 
that the frame which looks nearly perfectly symmetrical while at 
rest, becomes awkward and comparatively unsightly while in mo- 
tion; and the horse which is expected to move well will often be 
sent back to his stall with " That will do, thank you," after a 
single run. 

PROPORTIONS OF THE VAEIOUS POINTS. 

The proportions of the component parts of the horse, as I have 
already remarked, vary a good deal in the different breeds. The 
following, however, may be taken as the most perfect; but they 
r^fer especially to the racer, hunter, and hack, as well as to the 
lighter and more blood-like harness horses, and must not be strictly 
applied to the draught-horse in any of his varieties : — 

This scale is drawn in inches, and, in the outline, the horse is 
supposed to be fifteen hands three inches, or sixty-three inches 
high. The measurements are the average of those carefully taken 
from six horses considered to be of perfect symmetry. Two of 
these were celebrated stallions, two thoroughbred hunters, and two 
chargers of great value. 



PROPORTIONS OF VARIOUS POINTS. 



27 




Inches 

Height at withers and croup .... 63 
Length from shoulder-point to quarter 66 
From the lowest part of chest to the 

ground 36 

From the elbow-point to the ground . 39 
From the withers to the pole, just be- 
hind the ears, in a straight line . . 30 
The same measured along the crest . 32 

Length of head 22 

Width across the forehead 9£ 

Girth varies from 76 to 79. 

Circumference of fore cannon-bone. 7£, 8, 8, 8, 8£, and 9 inches. 

Circumference of arm just below the elbow, 16£ to 18 inches. 



Inches, 

From the withers to the hip .... 22 
From the stide to the point of the 

hock, in the attitude shown in the 

plan 28 

From the root of tail to stifle-joint . 26 
From the point of the hock to the 

ground 22£ 

Length of arm from the elbow to the 

pisiform-bone 19J 

From the pisiform-bone to the ground 19| 



On comparing these measurements with those of Eclipse, as 
recorded by St. Bel, it will appear that there is some considerable 
variation from those of that celebrated horse, which he is said to 
have measured during life, and to have also checked his dimensions 
after death. Thus, though Eclipse was very low before, and yet 
was sixty-six inches high, his head was twenty-two inches long, 
being the same as the average length of the six horses given by 
myself, though they are three inches lower at the withers, and at 
least five inches lower at the croup. Again, though thus shown 
to be particularly short, it must have been of extraordinary width ; 
for, according to the same authority, it measured one foot across 
below the eyes; but, as Mr. Percivall remarks, this must be a 
mistake for above the eyes. Indeed, I cannot help thinking, in 



28 THE HORSE. 

accordance with the opinions of the above distinguished English 
veterinarian, that in other respects " there appears some discord- 
ance in his admeasurements" of Eclipse. Nevertheless, it may 
safely be assumed, according to Mr. Percivall's summing up, that 
"he was a big horse in every sense of the word; he was tall in 
stature, lengthy and capacious in body, and large in his limbs. 
For a big horse his head was small, and partook of the Arabian 
character. His neck was unusually long. His shoulder was 
strong, sufficiently oblique, and though not remarkable for, not 
deficient in, depth. His chest was circular. He rose very little 
in his withers, being higher behind than before. His back was 
lengthy, and over the loins roached. His quarters were straight, 
square, and extended. His limbs were lengthy and broad, and 
his joints large, in particular his arms and thighs were long and 
muscular, and his knees and hocks broad and well formed." 

The scale which I have given likewise differs in many particulars, 
though only slightly, from that which is usually found in treatises 
on the horse; but I have preferred trusting to Nature herself 
rather than to the observations of previous writers, which may be 
consulted by the reader at any time. 

MATUEITY. 

The horse completes his dentition at five years old, when 
he may be said to be mature. At eight or nine years the lower 
teeth lose their marks, or black concavities, after which there is no 
reliable evidence of age, which can, however, be tolerably accurately 
guessed at from the length of the front teeth or nippers, and from 
the general appearance of the horse, especially about the eyes, as 
will be hereafter shown. 

Mares are very commonly allowed to breed in their 
third year, being put to the horse as two year olds. They often, 
however, come "in season" as yearlings, and many would then 
breed if allowed to be covered. It is found by experience that the 
foal robs the dam of some part of the nourishment which is destined 
by nature to develop the maternal frame, and hence the young 
mare is injured in size and substance if she breeds before she has 
come very near to maturity. 

AVERAGE AGE. 

The average age of the horse, when allowed to live without 
the risk of accidents and disease which he incurs in his usual work, 
is about twenty-five years. Instances of greater longevity are 
recorded on good authority, and there is reason to believe that 
occasionally he has reached to thirty-five or even forty years, but 
these are rare exceptions, and there are few which live beyond the 
twenty-eighth year, while a large proportion die before the twenty- 
fifth. Stallions are ever-fed and under-exercised in proportion, so 



MOULTING— MENTAL I>L 7EL0PMENT— STOMACH. 29 

that it is no wonder they become diseased, and seldom die from 
old age ; but brood-mares are not so mismanaged, and it is found 
that they become quite worn out soon after their twentieth year ; 
and. even if allowed to live they waste away and die by degrees, 
generally somewhere between their twenty-third and twenty-eighth 
year. 

PERIODICAL MOULTING. 

The horse sheds his coat once a year in all countries, and 
in our climate a second half-moult is performed in the autumn, 
when the summer short coat is partially shed. This second change 
consists, however, chiefly in a growth of the already existing hairs, 
which become coarser and longer, especially about the legs and 
under-parts of the body. At the same time the coat loses its gloss, 
and the color is less rich, blacks becoming rusty brown, and bays 
more yellow or sandy-colored than before. The hair of the mane 
and tail is constantly in a state of growth, and is not shed period- 
ically. 

MENTAL DEVELOPMENT. 

In mental development the horse ranks below the dog, but 
he is capable of a considerable degree of education, though in 
countries where he is kept constantly confined he does not appear 
to great advantage in this respect. That he may be made to 
understand what is said to him is clear enough from the mode of 
managing farm-horses, which are all taught to obey the voice. I 
have on one occasion seen a circus-horse walk, trot, and gallop at 
the word of command, and change his paces on the instant ; but 
this feat I have never known performed by any other exhibitor, 
nor do I think it would easily be imitated. It requires a high 
order of intellect to distinguish between the three paces and 
change them on the instant, and if I had not myself witnessed the 
performance on two several occasions I should scarcely have cred- 
ited it. The brain of this animal does not require much rest by 
sleep, and four or five hours in quiet are sufficient to keep him in 
health if he is not very hard worked. He readily sleeps standing, 
and some individuals never lie down ; but this habit of sleeping 
standing should not be encouraged, as it greatly distresses the legs, 
and tends to produce fever of the feet, or some other mischief in 
the lower extremities. 

SMALL STOMACH. 

One op the greatest peculiarities in the structure of th< 
horse is the small size of his stomach, which is also of a verv 
simple nature. He is likewise without a gall bladder, showing 
that the digestion must be continuous and not interrupted by dis- 
tinct intervals, as in the ruminants and carnivora. Nature har. 
thus framed this animal, in orufertiat he may be at all times able 
2* 



30 THE HORSE. 

to exert his utmost speed, which he could not do with the mass of 
provender in his stomach which is carried by the cow or sheep. 
The same provision is shown in the udder of the mare, which ia 
not larger than that of the goat or sheep. 

All these several characteristics of the horse will be more mi- 
nutely considered under the different heads to which they each 
belong ; but they are here grouped together to give a better general 
idea of the animal which is under examination. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE HORSES OF THE EAST. 

The Barb — The Egyptian Horse — The Horses of Dongola and 
Abyssinia — Other African Horses — The Modern Arab — The 
Persian Horse — The Turkish Horse — Other Asiatic Horses — 
The Australian Horse. 

For the following descriptions of Oriental varieties of 
the horse I am indebted to the accounts of travellers, having only 
seen one or two of them, and those only as single specimens, with 
the exception of the Arab. 

THE BARB. 

This kind is named after the country in which it is found, 
which is rather an extensive one, comprehending the states of 
Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers, Fez, and Morocco, all lying on the northern 
coast of Africa to the west of Egypt. Vegetation is very luxu- 
rious in the valleys watered by the streams which descend from 
the Atlas Mountains in their course to the Mediterranean, and 
grass is abundant in the early spring and autumn, but in the 
summer season the great heat burns it all up ; and therefore the 
horse is dependent upon the care of man for fodder during a great 
part of the year. Berenger describes the true Barb as follows : — ■ 

" The fore-hand is long, slender, and badly furnished with 
mane ; but the neck rises distinctly and boldly out of the withers ; 
the head is small and lean ; ears, of good size, and well placed ; 
shoulders, light, obliquely sloping, and broad ; withers, thin and 
high; loins, straight and short; flanks and ribs, round, and well 
developed; haunches, strong; croup, somewhat too long; quar- 
ters, muscular and full ; legs, clean, and the tendons clearly marked 
and separate from the bone ; pasterns, somewhat too long and 
slanting ; feet, sound and of good shape. In size they are lower 
than the Arabs, seldom measuring more than fourteen and a half 



THE BARL. 



31 



hands, and they have not as much spirit, speed, or endurance, al- 
though in external things they are perhaps superior to him." 

The Godolphin Arabian, of which the annexed cut is a 
representation, is said to have been imported into France from 
Barbary, and is supposed to have been presented by the Emperor 
of Morocco to Louis XIV. as a fine Barb; but he was thought so 
little of in Paris that he was set to draw a cart about the streets, 
from which ignoble occupation he was rescued by Mr. Coke, and 
brought over to England. This gentleman gave him to a Mr. 
Williams, who kept the St. James' Coffee-house, and by him he 
was presented to the Earl of Godolphin for stud purposes. It 




was, however, only by chance that his value was discovered ; for 
being used as teazer to Hobgoblin, he was merely put to Roxana 
on the refusal of that horse to cover her, the produce being Lath, 
one of the best horses of the day. The Godolphin Arabian was 
of a brown bay color, and is said to have been about fifteen hands 
in height. He is supposed to have been foaled about the year 
17^4, and died in 1753. A remarkable feature in this horse is 
the height of his crest, and he is also invariably represented with 
round and drooping quarters. Several portraits of him are in 
existence, but all render thes* 5 joints in the same manner. I am 



32 THE HORSE. 

not aware that there are any reliable ground: for considering tins 
celebrated horse as a Barb rather than an Arab, and according iu 
the usual description of the former, his size is against the hypo- 
thesis. Still, as he is generally so considered, I have added his 
description to that of the Barb, leaving my readers to draw their 
own conclusions. 

THE EGYPTIAN HORSE. 

In the first Chapter I have shown that there is a strong 
reason for believing that the horse was introduced to Arabia 
through Egypt, and that the latter country again derived its supply 
from the central regions of Africa, which probably also furnished 
the Barbary States. The modern Egyptian horse is a very second- 
rate animal, and, according to Burckhardt, " is ugly, of coarse shape, 
and looking more like a cart-horse than a racer." He says, "Their 
legs and knees, and short and thick necks, are frequent defects 
among them. The head is sometimes fine ; but I never saw good 
legs in an Egyptian horse. They are not able to bear any great 
fatigue, but when well fed their action occasionally is more bril- 
liant than that of the Arabian ; their impetuosity, however, ren- 
ders them peculiarly desirable for heavy cavalry, and it is upon 
this quality alone that their celebrity has ever been founded." 

There are said to be some fine breeds in the interior of the 
country; but, as a rule, the Egyptian horse stands very low in the 
estimation of travellers. Of late years more attention has been 
paid to his breeding by the Viceroy and his subordinates, and it is 
said that some considerable improvement has taken place. 

THE HORSES OF DONGOLA AND ABYSSINIA. 

The Dongola breed has been celebrated by that trustworthy 
authority, Mr. Bruce, as of the highest symmetry, size, and 
strength. He also praises highly their temper and docility, but 
seems to know nothing of their actual performances. Other wri- 
ters, however, find fault with their want of substance, and pro- 
nounce them to be deficient in stoutness. 

The Abyssinian Horse is generally described as of good siz<) 
and power, but I know of no reliable authority on which to depend 
in reference to particular points. 

OTHER AFRICAN HORSES. 

Besides the above distinct breeds of African horses there 
are several others which are not clearly made out, but to which 
individual travellers have alluded as, in their opinion, decided 
varieties of the animal. Thus Mr. Tully speaks of the Bornou 
horse as superior both to the Barb and Arab, but his statement is 
not verified by travellers of later date. The South African horse, 
used by the Kafirs in the recent hbSSS with the Boors of the Cape 



THE MODERN ARAB. 33 

of Good Hope, is a most wiry and useful animal ; but there is no 
doubt that he has been greatly altered from the original form of 
the native horse by crosses with the English and Arabian breeds, 
which have been obtained by theft. In the early days of this set- 
tlement the native horse was very small, seldom reaching to four- 
teen hands, and though hardy and capable of standing a good deal 
of work, yet plain and unsightly in appearance. The colonists 
have so improved this original stock that they can now furnish 
several thousand horses annually for exportation, averaging fifteen 
hands in height, and of very superior form and action. They 
show a great deal of Arabian blood, but many of them bear a 
strong resemblance to the thorough-bred English horse, several of 
which breed have been at various times introduced into the colony. 

THE MODERN ARAB. 

The controversy relating to the value of this breed in the 
stud has raged with such vehemence that it is difficult to obtain 
an unprejudiced opinion upon it. One thing, however, is quite 
clear, namely, that to it in a great measure we owe the pre-eminence 
of our English thorough -bred. But how long it would take to 
bring a modern Arab, even of the highest caste, to the state of 
perfection in which we find our own West Australians and Stock- 
wells it would be difficult to say. This subject, however, will be 
better discussed in treating of the English breed itself. 

Ali Bey, who has investigated the subject with great acuteness, 
and who has had opportunities beyond the reach of ordinary wri- 
ters, describes six distinct breeds of Arabs. " The first," he says, 
" named the ' Dgelfe/ is found in Arabia Felix. They are rare at 
Damascus, but pretty common in the neighborhood of Anaze. 
They are remarkable for speed and fire, yet mild as lambs; they 
support hunger and thirst for a long time, are of lofty stature, 
narrow in the chest, but deep in the girth, and with long ears. A 
colt of this breed at two years old will cost in his own country two 
thousand Turkish piastres. 

" The second breed, called ' Seclaoni/ comes from the eastern 
part of the Desert, resembles the ' Dgelfe' of Anaze in appear- 
ance, but is not quite so highly valued. 

" Next comes the ' Mefki,' handsome, though not so swift as the 
two former breeds, and more resembling the Andalusian in figure. 
They are very common about Damascus. 

" Then the Sabi resembles the Mefki ; and the fifth breed, called 
Fridi, is very common Wt it is necessary to try them well, for 
they are often vicious, and do not possess the excellent qualities of 
the other breeds. 

" Sixth, comes the Nejdi, from the neighborhood of Bussorah, 
and if they do not surpass, they at least equal, the ' Dgelfe of 

c 



34 THE HORSE. 

Anaze, and Seclaoni.' Horses of this breed are little known at 
Damascus, and connoisseurs assert that they are incomparable ; 
thus their value is arbitrary, and always exceeds two thousand 
piastres." 

The first and last of these breeds are those which are most sought 
after by East Indian sportsmen ; and Colonel Bower, who is one of 
their strongest admirers, tells us that he once possessed a three- 
year-old colt which stood fifteen hands and an inch at that age. 
He describes him as having " the stereotyped assortment of Eastern 
beauties : could stick his nose in a tumbler, and looked the gentle- 
man all over; remarkably muscular, and as stately in his bearing 
as an autocrat, but his clean flat wiry legs, measuring eight inches 
round the shank below the knee, had nothing English in their 
composition. This was a pure Anaze Arab, but his career in the 
field was cut short by his casting himself in his stall, and dislocat- 
ing his hip." It will be seen that no mention is here made of the 
breed which has been so long familiar to those who read our mo- 
dern histories of the horse as that called " Kochlani" or " Kailhan," 
descended from the stud of Mahomet, who is supposed by many 
historians to have laid the foundation of the Arabian pedigrees. 
There is a tradition that the Prophet, being desirous of selecting 
mares for his stud, had a number of them which had been used as 
chargers kept for two days without water. At the end of that 
time, when mad with thirst, they were set at liberty, and at the 
moment when they were close to the coveted water, his trumpets 
sounded a war charge, which had such an effect upon five of them 
that they abandoned the water, and gallopped to the spot where 
they expected to meet with the still greater excitement of war. 
These five were therefore selected to form the foundation of his 
stud, and from them it is supposed that the race called "Kochlani" 
are descended. There is a slight similarity between this name and 
that of the second in the list enumerated by Ali Bey, and perhaps 
his " Seclaoni" may be identical with the " Kochlani" of previous 
writers. It is asserted by Oriental travellers that pedigrees exist 
which can be traced five hundred years back, and in the highest 
breeds there is no doubt that at present great care is taken, and 
many ceremonies performed at the covering of the mare. After 
the birth of the foal, a certificate is always duly made out by the 
local authority, and this must be done within seven days of its 
being dropped. 

Arabia is, in great measure, made up of rocky mountains and 
sandy deserts ; but in Arabia Felix there are numerous valleys of 
remarkable fertility ; though it is chiefly on the limited oasis sur- 
rounding each well or spring of water that the Arab horses are 
dependent for their food. It is found even in this country that a 
very luxuriant herbage does not suit the horse, whose frame be- 



THE MODERN ARAB. 



35 



comes coarse and heavy if he is reared upon the succulent grasses 
of rich meadows, and therefore it is probable that much of the 
wiryness of leg and lightness of frame in the Arab is due to the 
sandy soil in which the grasses of these oases take their roots. 
Besides this, the dry air may have something to do with the devel- 
opment of muscle and tendon, while the soft sands of the desert 
render it unnecessary to protect the feet with iron shoes, and thu3 
they are enabled to grow into the form which nature has designed 
for them as the most suitable to bear the superincumbent weight 




"CHABAN," AN ARABIAN STALLION. 

Pure Arabs are considerably smaller than our modern tho- 
rough-breds, seldom exceeding 14 hands 2 inches in height. The 
head is remarkable for the width across the forehead, which is also 
full and square, while the muzzle is finer, the face more hollowed 
out, and the jaws more fully developed in their proportions than 
in any other breed with which we are acquainted. The eye is full 
and soft, yet sparkling with animation on the slightest excitement ; 
the ear is small ; the neck arched ; the shoulders oblique, but mus- 
cular ; the withers moderately high and thin ; the chest rather 
light in girth, but the back ribs deep in proportion, and the hips. 



36 THE HORSE. 

though narrow, well united to the back by a rounded mass of pow- 
erful muscles. The croup is high, and the tail set on with a con- 
siderable arch. The bones of the legs are large in proportion to 
the size, and the tendons full and free, the suspensory ligaments 
being particularly strong and clean. The hocks are large and free 
both from curbs and spavins ; and, lastly, the feet, though small, 
are sound, and capable of bearing an amount of battering which 
few well-bred English horses can sustain. The prefixed engraving 
of " Chaban," an Arabian stallion, shows most of these points 
extremely well, and the general characteristics of the breed are 
particularly well indicated by the artist, who took the sketch from 
a celebrated Arabian of high caste in the stud of the King of 
Wurtemburg. 

From the full development of the brain in this breed it 
might be expected & priori, that the amount of intelligence and 
courage possessed by them would be far above the average ; and 
such is the result of experience. Most of them are extremely 
docile, and in their native plains, where they pass their lives in 
constant communion with their masters, they are possessed of fine 
tempers ; but if they are highly fed, and at the same time deprived 
of exercise and cruelly treated, their nervous system is so sensitive 
that they rebel, and when they fight they persevere to the death. 
A vicious Arabian is, therefore, a very unmanageable brute, and 
difficult to cure of his bad propensities. Good treatment, however, 
has its effect upon him, and when he once shows his forgiveness he 
may be depended on by the individual that he takes into his good 
graces. This trait has been well exemplified in the savage Arabian 
lately tamed by Mr. Rarey, and in a still more marked manner in 
former years in the case of Chillaby, who was, if possible, more 
savage than Cruiser, and yet was so completely tamed by Hughes, 
the celebrated circus-horse trainer, that he was able to exhibit him 
as a trained horse, and was never once disappointed by him. This 
is, I believe, more than Mr. Rarey can say of the above well-known 
Bavage horse, which was one of the first he operated on in this 
country. 

The food of this kind of horse is of a very dry though nour- 
ishing nature, and neither when at liberty nor when tied up can 
he get much water, the prevalent opinion being that an unlimited 
supply of this fluid injures his shape, and interferes with his wind. 
It is said that the Arab horse is only fed twice a-day ; but I con- 
clude that this only refers to his allowance of corn, and that in 
the intervals he is permitted to pick up what little dry herbage 
the soil affords. Wonderful stories are told of the distances which 
young colts are compelled to go when first mounted, but I confess 
that I look with great suspicion upon these travellers' tales. About 
five or six pounds of barley or beans, or a mixture of the two, con- 



THE MODERJ" ARAB. 37 

stitute the dai*y allowance of corn, which is about the weight of 
half a peck of good oats, and would be considered poor feed by 
our English horses, unless the proportion of beans is very large. 

The colors of the Arabian horses are mostly bay, chestnut, 
and gray, but occasionally black. The skin itself of the gray 
horses is of a deep slate color, and the manes and tails are darker 
than the rest of the body. 

The speed of the Arabs, which have recently been brought 
over to this country, is undoubtedly not nearly equal to that of 
our thorough-bred horses for courses of moderate length, that is, 
not exceeding two miles ; and there is no reason to believe that at 
longer distances there would be an essential difference in the result. 
In the Goodwood Cup an allowance is made them of a stone, yet 
no Arab has ever had a chance of winning, and as far as this test 
goes they are proved to be inferior to the French and American 
horses. In India a difference of weight, varying from 1 stone to 
1 stone 7 pounds, is made in favor of Arabs as against imported 
English horses, " in order to bring the two together" in racing 
parlance, yet even then few Arabs can compete with the second- 
rate horses which are imported from this country. Colonel Bower 
tells us that " in India the weights range from 7 % stone to 10 
stone, and no uncommon timing for Arabs is 2 minutes and 54 
seconds the mile and a half; 3 minutes and 52 seconds the 2 
miles — it has been done in 3 minutes and 48 seconds, and the Arab 
that did it was once my property, and his name was the Child of 
the Islands. He was a daisy-cutter, and yet I have ridden him 
over the roughest ground, and never detected him in a trip. A 
pleasanter, safer hack could not be, and a fleeter Arab the world 
never saw. He stood 14 hands 2 inches, bay with black points, 
wiry limbs, very muscular all over, and measured 7f inches round 
a fore leg of the finest bone and flattest sinew." This time is as 
good as that of the average of our Derbys, but the test is a very 
fallacious one, and unless the time is taken over the same course, 
and that in the same running condition, no comparison can pos- 
sibly be drawn. 

Captain Shakspear, in his recently published work on the 
" Wild Sports of India," gives the following most minute descrip- 
tion of the Arab, as he is now met with in India. As it differs in 
some particulars from the accounts of other observers, I extract it 
entire. The price of a good Arab, he says, varies from 150?. to 
200?., and there is plenty of choice in the Bombay and Bengal 
markets. 

" The points of the highest caste Arab horse, as compared with 
the English thorough-bred, are as follow : the head is more beauti- 
fully formed, and more intelligent; the forehead broader; the 
muzzle finer; the eye more prominent, more sleepy-looking in 
4 



38 THE HORSE. 

repose, more brilliant when the animal is excited. The ear is 
more beautifully pricked, and of exquisite shape and sensitiveness. 
On the back of the trained hunter, the rider scarcely requires to 
keep his eye on anything but the ears of his horse, which give 
indications of everything that his ever-watchful eye catches sight 
of. The nostril is not always so open in a state of rest, and indeed 
often looks thick and closed ; but in excitement, and when the 
lungs are in full play from the animal being at speed, it expands 
greatly, and the membrane shows scarlet and as if on fire. The 
game-cock throttle — that most exquisite formation of the throat 
and jaws of the blood-horse — is not so commonly seen in the Arab 
as in the thorough-bred English racehorse ; nor is the head quite 
so lean. The jaws, for the size of the head, are perhaps more 
apart, giving more room for the expansion of the windpipe. The 
point where the head is put on to the neck is quite as delicate as 
in the English horse. This junction has much more to do with 
the mouth of the horse than most people are aware of, and on it 
depends the pleasure or otherwise of the rider. The bones, from 
the eye down towards the lower part of the head, should not be 
too concave, or of a deer's form ; for this in the Arab as in the 
English horse denotes a violent temper, though it is very beautiful 
to look at. Proceeding to the neck, we notice that the Arab stal- 
lion has rarely the crest that an English stallion has. He has a 
strong, light, and muscular neck, a little short, perhaps, compared 
to the other, and thick. In the pure breeds, the neck runs into 
the shoulders very gradually; and generally, if the horse has a 
pretty good crest, comes down rather perpendicularly into the 
shoulders; but often, if he is a little ewe-necked, which is not 
uncommon with the Arab, it runs in too straight, and low down 
in the shoulders. The Arab, however, rarely carries his head, 
when he is being ridden, so high in proportion as the English. 
He is not so well topped, which I attribute to the different way he 
is reared, and to his not being broken in regularly, like the Eng- 
lish horse, before he is put to work. His shoulders are not so flat 
and thin, and he is thicker through in these parts generally for 
his size than the English thorough-bred horse. His girth does 
not show so deep, that is, he does not look so deep over the heart; 
but between the knees and behind the saddle, where the English 
horse very often falls off, the Arab is barrel-ribbed; and this gives 
him his wonderful endurance and his great constitutional points. 
This also prevents him from getting knocked up in severe training 
or under short allowance of food, and in long marches. His chest 
is quite broad enough and deep enough for either strength or 
bottom. The scapula, or shoulder-blade, is both in length and 
backward inclination, compared to the humerus, or upper bone of 
the arm, quite as fine in the high-caste Arab as in the English 



THE MODERN ARAB. 39 

horse ; while both bones are generally better furnished with mus- 
cles, better developed, and feel firmer to the hand. But some of 
the very fastest Arabs have their fore legs very much under them ; 
indeed, so much that no judge would buy an English horse so 
made. Yet, whether it be that this form admits of the joints 
between these bones becoming more opened, when the horse 
extends himself, or whatever be the cause, it is a fact that blood- 
horses thus made are almost always fast horses. The upper part 
of their shoulder-blade seems to run back under the front part of 
the saddle, when they are going their best. This formation is 
most common in the lower-sized Arab, and apparently makes up 
to him for his deficiency in height. The very finest-actioned 
Arabs have had this peculiarity of form. They are rather apt 
to become chafed at the elbow-points by the girths, and almost 
require to have saddles made on purpose for them. The elbow- 
point, that essential bone, which for the sake of leverage should 
be prominent, is fine in the Arab, and generally plays clear of the 
body. The fore-arm is strong and muscular, and is pretty long ; 
the knee square, with a good speedy cut for the size of the animal, 
equal to the English horse; while below the knee the Arab shines 
very conspicuously, having a degree of power there, both in the 
suspensory ligaments and flexor tendons, far superior, in proportion 
to his size, to the English horse. These are distinct and away 
from the shank-bone ; they give a very deep leg, and act mechani- 
cally to great advantage. The bone looks small, but then it is 
very dense, the hollow which contains the marrow being very 
small, and the material solid, more like ivory than bone, heavy, 
and close-grained. The flexor tendons are nearly as large and as 
thick as the canna bone. The pasterns and their joints are quite 
in keeping with the bones above them, and are not so long, straight, 
and weak as those of the English horse. The feet are generally 
in the same proportion : but the Arabs themselves appear to be 
very careless in their treatment of them. The body or centre piece 
of the Arab horse has rarely too great length. This is a very 
uncommon fault in the pure breed ; and there is no breed of horses 
that are more even in this respect than the Arab. Behind this, 
we come to a great peculiarity in the breed — his croup. I might 
say an Arab horse is known by it : he is so much more beautifully 
made in his hind quarters, and in the way his tail is put on, than 
most other breeds. His loins are good ; he is well coupled ; his 
quarters are powerful, and his tail carried high ; and this even in 
castes that have very little more than a high-bred stallion to recom- 
mend them. . The straight-dropped hind leg is always a recom- 
mendation, and almost all racing Arabs have it; and this, when 
extended, brings the hind foot under the stirrup, and the pro- 
pellers being of this shape give a vast stride, without fear of over- 



10 THE HORSE. 

reach. The thighs and hocks are good ; the latter very rarely 
know either kind of spavin or curbs. The points and processes 
are pre-eminently well adapted for the attachment of the muscles ; 
while the flexor tendons of the hind legs generally correspond with 
those of the fore. The hocks are not so much let down, nor the 
hind legs so greyhound-like, as in the thorough-bred English horse. 
In stride, too, he is somewhat different, inasmuch as it is a rounder 
way of going, and is not so extended or so near the ground, but is 
more like a bound. However, there are exceptions ; and I have 
bred pure Arabs whose stride, for their size, was very extended, 
and quite like that of English racehorses." 

The Mare is commonly supposed to be more highly prized by 
the Arabs than the stallion ; but this idea is said to be unfounded 
by the celebrated Abd el Kader, in a highly interesting letter to 
General Daumas, which is published in the fifth number of Baih/s 
Magazine of Sports. He remarks : 

" It is true that the foal proceeds from the sire and from the 
dam, but the experience of ages has proved that the essential parts 
of the body — such as the bones, the tendons, the nerves, and the 
veins — proceed always from the sire. This is beyond all doubt. 
The meanest Arab knows now that any malady specially belonging 
to the bones, under which the sire may be suffering at the time of 
covering, will be perpetuated in his produce, such as splints, bone 
and blood spavins, the shape of the bones, and all diseases of the 
vertebral column. The dam may give to her produce color, and a 
certain amount of resemblance in form, the foal naturally partak- 
ing of some of the qualities of the animal which had so long 
borne it; but it is an incontestable fact, that it is the sire who gives 
strength to the bones, substance to the tendons, vigor to the nerves, 
rapidity of pace, in short, all the principal qualities. He also 
communicates what may be called moral qualities, and if he be 
unquestionably of high blood the foal is preserved from vice. Our 
fathers have said, El aond por ma audouche Mela — 'A horse of 
noble race has no vices.' An Arab will lend his stud horse gra- 
tuitously ; he never accepts payment for his services. To hire out 
a stud horse for money is, in the eyes of an Arab, an unworthy 
action, and is contrary to the generosity for which he is renowned, 
and although the law allows it, I have never known an instance of 
it. But though the Arab lends his stud horse gratuitously, he 
does not do so to the first comer, nor for any mare. No; the sup- 
pliant is often obliged to make use of the intercession of persons 
of great interest, or even of his wives, if he would not see his re- 
quest refused. On the other hand, the Arabs are very difficult in 
their choice of a stud horse, and if they cannot find one of pure 
blood, they prefer leaving their mares unproductive rather than 
put them to a common horse. To procure a good sire they do not 



THE PERSIAN HORSE. 41 

hesitate to travel any distance. The preceding has already inti- 
mated to you my conclusion, that the sire has more to do with the 
foal than the dam. And my conclusion is identical with the uni- 
versal opinion of the Arabs. They say, El Mr ilebal el fahal — 
'The foal follows the sire.'" 

In corroboration of this opinion, he describes the Arab horses 
as distinguished under the following heads : — " El Horr, El Had- 
jim, El Mekueref, and El Berdoune. El Horr is that in whicii 
sire and dam are both of noble race ; that takes the lead. El 
Hadjim is that in which the sire is noble and the clam of common 
race ; it is considered less than El Horr, its name Hadjim, ' defec- 
tive,' being derived from the word ' Hurdjiss,' which signifies 
faulty. El Mekueref is that in which the dam is high bred and 
the sire is half bred ; although this approaches the Hadjim, it is 
of much less value. The name of this class is derived from ' haraf,' 
mixed. El Hadjim is superior in quality on the same principle 
that a man whose father is white and whose mother is a negress is 
superior to him whose mother is white and whose father is a negro. 
El Berdoune is that class in which both sire and dam are badly 
bred. This animal is a stranger to our country. The value of a 
horse is in its breeding." 

THE PERSIAN HORSE. 

Sir John Malcolm and Sir Robert Ker Porter, both of whom 
resided many years in Persia, are the chief authorities on this 
subject. The former says : — " A variety of horses are produced 
in Persia. The inhabitants of the districts which border on the 
Gulf still preserve here those races of animals which their ances- 
tors brought from the opposite shore of Arabia. In Fars and Irak 
they have a mixed breed from the Arabian, which though stronger 
is still a small horse compared with either the Toorkoman or Kho- 
rassan breed, which are most prized by the soldiers of Persia. 
Both these latter races have also a great proportion of Arabian 
blood." Sir Robert thus alludes to them : — " The Persian horses 
never exceed fourteen or fourteen and a half hands high; yet 
certainly on the whole they are taller than Arabs. Those of the 
Desert and country about Hillah seem very small, but are full of 
bone, and of good speed. General custom feeds and waters them 
only at sunrise and sunset, when they are cleaned. Their usual 
provender h barley and chopped straw, which, if the animals are 
picketed, is >ut into a nosebag and hung from their heads ; but if 
stabled, it is' thrown into a lozenge-shaped hole, left in the thick- 
ness of the mud wall for that purpose, but much higher up than 
the line of our mangers, and then the animal eats at his leisure. 
Hay is a kind of food not known here. The bedding of the horse 
consists of his dung. After being exposed to the drying influence 
4 * 



42 THE HORSE. 

of the sun during the day, it becomes pulverized, and in that state 
is nightly spread under him. Little of it touches his body, that 
being covered by his clothing, a large nummud from the head to 
the tail, and bound firmly round his body by a very long surcingle. 
But this apparel is only for cold weather; in the warmer season 
the night-clothes are of a lighter substance, and during the heat 
of the day the animal is kept entirely under shade. At night he 
is tied in the court-yard. The horses' heads are attached to the 
place of security by double ropes from their halters, and the heels 
of their hinder legs are confined by cords of twisted hair, fastened 
to iron rings and pegs driven into the earth. The same custom 
prevailed in the time of Xenophou, and for the same reason, to 
secure them from being able to attack and maim each other, the 
whole stud generally consisting of stallions. Their keepers, how- 
ever, always sleep in their rugs amongst them to prevent accidents, 
and sometimes notwithstanding all their care they manage to break 
loose, and then the combat ensues. A general neighing, screaming, 
kicking, and snorting soon raise the groom, and the scene for a 
while is terrible. Indeed no one can conceive the sudden uproar 
of such a moment who has not been in Eastern countries to hear 
it, and then all who have must bear me witness that the noise is 
tremendous. They seize, bite, and kick each other with the most 
determined fury, and frequently cannot be separated before their 
heads and haunches stream with blood." 

THE TURKISH HORSE. 

This variety seems to be merely the Arab developed by higher 
food into a larger size and more massive proportions. The horses 
of Constantinople are often sixteen hands in height, with very 
elegant proportions and a crupper more highly developed than that 
of the Arab. They are said to be extremely docile, and the two 
specimens which I have seen imported into this country certainly 
bDre out this character, both of them, though stallions, being as 
quiet as any English geldings. They had very high crests and 
arched necks ; and this is said to be one of the characteristics of 
the breed. In the records of the turf in this country, many of 
the most celebrated sires are mentioned as Turks; but though 
imported from Turkey, it is very probable that some of these were 
genuine Arabs. 

OTHER ASIATIC HORSES. 

The Horses of Toorkistan are described by Sir R. K. Porter 
as scanty in barrel, long in the leg, with ewe necks and large heads. 
When crossed with those of Persia, they, however, are said by him 
to produce a most magnificent animal, all elegance and elasticity, 
and of a stronger form and somewhat larger size than the best 



OTHER ASIATIC HORSES. 43 

Arabians. Sir Alexander Burns attributes to them, on tbe other 
hand, a very high crest, and large and bony though somewhat 
long bodies. He says, also, that in Bokhara there is a breed of 
Kuzzak horses, sturdy and small, with shaggy coats and very long 
manes and tails, much and deservedly admired. 

The Tartar Horses are small and narrow, with long necks, 
weak legs, large heads, and light middles. Nevertheless they are 
described as fast and untiring, and of the most hardy nature, so 
that they can support themselves on a quantity and quality of food 
upon which even our donkeys would starve. 

In various parts op Tartary horses are found in a wild 
state, and present a rough inelegant form not unlike that of our 
New Forest ponies. In them the characteristics of the domesti- 
cated Tartar horse already described are exhibited in a marked 
manner, and there is every reason to believe that the two breeds 
are identical, and that the ranks of the latter are recruited from 
the enormous herds of wild horses which are found in countless 
thousands on the edges of the vast deserts of the country. They 
are generally of a red color, with a black stripe along the back, 
and manes and tails of the latter color, but almost always reddish 
at the roots of the dock and edges of the mane. The Tartars eat 
the flesh both of the wild and domesticated horse, and are said to 
cook the meat under their saddles. They also manufacture a drink 
called koumiss from the milk obtained from the mare, which is 
fermented and distilled into an intoxicating beverage. 

In so vast a country as India, it might be expected that 
numerous breeds of horses would be found, varying almost as much 
as the climates and soils of Bengal and Cabool. In the immediate 
neighborhood of the three presidencies imported and country-bred 
Arab, as well as Persian and Turkooman horses, are common 
enough, as also are importations from the Cape of Good Hope, 
Australia, and Van Dienian's Land. English horses are not nearly 
so numerous, the expense and risk of the voyage deterring most 
people from the speculation, the doubtful nature of which may be 
estimated from the fact that the insurance is twenty-four to twenty- 
five per cent., and this only insures the landing of the animal alive; 
for if it is so wasted and worn as to die an hour afterwards, the pol- 
icy is of no value to the insured. Williamson, in his Wild Sports 
of the East, describes the native Bengal breeds in the following 
terms : — " They have generally Roman noses, and sharp, narrow 
foreheads, much white in their eyes, ill-shaped ears, square heads, 
thin necks, narrow chests, shallow girths, lank bellies, cat hams, 
goose rumps, and switch tails ! Some occasionally may be found 
in every respect well shaped. They are hardy and fleet, but inca- 
pable of carrying great weights. Their vice is proverbial ; yet 
until they arrive at four or five years they are often very docile 



44 THE HORSE. 

and gentle ; after that period they, for the most part, are given to 
rearing, kicking, biting, and a thousand equally disagreeable 
habits." Other writers have defined the several breeds found 
throughout the southern parts of India, and named them also, as 
Toorky, Cozakee, Tazsee, &c. ; but I understand from good author- 
ity that there are really no such breeds in existence now, and 
probably they were only called into being by the active imagina- 
tions of inventive writers. Large breeding studs were kept by 
some of the native princes, but these were mainly dependent upon 
imported Arabs and Persians, and could claim no peculiar strain 
as their own. The same mixture of blood prevails in the present 
day, with the exception of the horses in the northern provinces. 

The Birman Horse is very small, being seldom higher than 
thirteen hands, and it is said that some specimens are less than 
eleven. The same remark applies also to those of China, Siam, 
and Java. 

THE AUSTRALIAN HORSE. 

The Irishman's fifth quarter of the world is now 
abundantly supplied with horses of the first class, in size, speed, 
and stoutness, though little more than half a century ago the ani- 
mal was altogether unknown there. At first, from the proximity 
of India and the Cape of Good Hope, the horses of these colonies, 
and those of inferior value only, were imported into the new settle- 
ment; but about the year 1835 great efforts were made by several 
enterprising settlers, both in the Island of Van Dieman and also 
on the continent of Australia, and several horses of good breeding 
were imported from this country, especially by Mr. Wilmore in 
the former island. It was soon found that the climate is admirably 
suited to this animal, and there are now colonial-bred horses, 
adapted for the turf and the road, as well as for agricultural pur- 
poses, superior in soundness and probably in stoutness, even if 
they are deficient in face, as compared with the British thorough- 
bred. As far as I know, no Australian horse has been imported 
into England, so that we have no means of comparing the two on 
terms advantageous to the mother country ; nor possibly can we 
altogether depend upon the glowing accounts which are furnished 
us of the appearance and performances of our Antipodean rivals. 
Still I am inclined to believe that as the soil and climate are ad- 
mitted to improve the appearance of the imported horses, as indeed 
they do all our domestic animals, and as disease of all kinds is 
extremely rare, so it will be found that in all good qualities the 
Australian horse is at least on a par with our own. Their breeders 
are so spirited and determined that neither money nor trouble is 
spared in procuring the best blood, an evidence of which is afforded 
by the fact that at the recent sale of Lord Londesborough's stud, 
the large sum of 3120 guineas (about $15,000) was invested for 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN HORSE. 45 

Australia. This, probably, is the heaviest price yet paid at one 
sale by any colonial breeder, but numerous smaller speculations 
have been going on for the last twenty years. Hence, whatever 
position is attained by our friends over the water, they will en- 
tirely owe to the parent country; and I strongly suspect that 
before long we shall have to go to them to procure sound horses 
of high breeding; for our own studs. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE HORSES OP THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE. 

The South American Horse — The Mustang — The Indian Pony — 
The Canadian Horse — The Morgan Horse — The American 
Trotter — The Narraganset Pacer — The American Thorough- 
bred — The Vermont Cart-Horse — The Conestoga Draught- 
Horse. 

TEE SOUTH AMERICAN HORSE. 

For some time after the discovery op America, at the 
conclusion of the fifteenth century, the horse was entirely unknown 
in that hemisphere, but according to Azara a few specimens were 
introduced there by the Spaniards in the year 1535, and in the 
year 1537 several were shipped to Paraguay. From these have 
been bred the countless herds which have since spread over the 
whole southern part of the western world, and passing the Isthmus 
of Panama have wandered into North America. In both these 
divisions the horse runs wild, wherever there are plains suitable to 
him, and not yet brought under cultivation ; but it is in the south 
that the wild horse is to be found in the greatest numbers, on the 
extensive plains which stretch almost unbroken from the shores of 
La Plata to Patagonia. Here herds numbering some thousands in 
each are to be met with, each under the guidance of a master stal- 
lion, who enforces entire submission to his will as long as he has 
the power to do so. Here the native Gaucho has only to throw 
his lasso, and he can at any time supply himself with a horse which 
will carry him for miles at a hand gallop, when he changes him 
for another, and is thus always mounted at a cheap and easy rate. 
In this way Captain Head rode all across the continent from one 
shore to the other, nearly using up one horse in the course of fifty 
or sixty miles, and then looking out for another before the first 
was so spent as to be unable to assist him in making the exchange. 
These wild horses greatly resemble their Spanish ancestors in make 
and shape. They are said to be possessed of a fair amount of 



46 THE HORSE. 

speed, but not above the average of foreign breeds. They are, 
however, from their roving habits, in excellent wind, and it is said 
that a Gaucho has been known to ride one fresh caught nearly a 
hundred miles without drawing bit. 

THE MUSTANG, OR WILD HORSE OF NORTH AMERICA. 

Like the wild horses op South America, those of Mexico 
and California are in all probability descended from Spanish blood, 
and indeed it is impossible now to discover, with anything like 
certainty, the source of the Indian Ponies, large herds of which 
run wild in the northern and north-western parts of this extensive 
continent. So little do the Americans now know or care about 
these wild horses, that the late Mr. Herbert, who has treated of 
the American Horse in two vols, quarto, omits all mention of them, 
excepting the most cursory allusion to the Mustang as the origin 
of the Indian Pony, in common with the Canadian horse. I shall, 
therefore, not weary my readers with extracts from Mr. Catlin's 
somewhat fanciful writings, but at once proceed to allude to the 
modern domesticated breeds of horses met with in the United 
States and Canada. 

According to Mr. Herbert, who seems to have taken great 
pains to arrive at the truth, " with the one solitary exception of 
the Norman horse in Canada, no special breeds have ever taken 
root as such, or been bred, or even attempted to be bred, in them 
purity, in any part of America. In Canada East the Norman 
horse, imported by the early settlers, was bred for many generations 
entirely unmixed ; and, as the general agricultural horse of the 
province, exists, yet so stunted in size by the cold climate and the 
rough usage to which he has been subjected for centuries, but in 
no wise degenerated, for he possesses all the honesty, courage, en- 
durance, hardihood, soundness of constitution, and characteristic 
excellence of feet and legs of his progenitor." Besides this native 
Canadian there are also, among the more active kinds, the Morgan 
horse, the American trotter, the Narraganset pacer, and the tho- 
rough-bred descended from English imported horses, with scarcely 
any admixture of native blood ; and of the agricultural varieties, 
the Vermont and Conestoga draught-horses, in addition to several 
others not so easily made out. 

THE INDIAN PONY. 

The Indian Pony, which seldom or never exceeds thirteen 
hands in height, is remarkable for activity and strength, as com- 
pared with its size, appearing, like its Scotch congener, to be almost 
overwhelmed with its rider, whose feet nearly touch the ground, 
yet moving under its load with freedom. It has a high crest, 
and a flowing mane and tail, with a proud carriage of the head of 



THE CANADIAN HORSE. 



47 



a very pleasing character. The body is strongly built, and the legs 
and feet are made of the most lasting materials. Large herds of 
these ponies run wild in the prairies of the north-west, and many 
are brought into Canada for the use of the inhabitants. 




THE CANADIAN HORSE. 



THE CANADIAN HOESE. 

The Canadian Horse is generally about fourteen to fifteen 
hands high, and is a remarkably hardy animal, capable of travelling 
very long distances, but in his pure condition not above the average 
in speed. When crossed, however, with a thorough-bred horse, he 
combines the speed of the latter with his own endurance and iron 
constitution and legs, and in this way a great many of the best 
American trotters are bred. Mr. Herbert says, '.' His crest is lofty, 
and his demeanor proud and courageous; his breast is full and 
broad ; his shoulders strong, though somewhat straight, and a little 
inclined to be heavy; his back broad, and his croup round, fleshy, 
and muscular ; his ribs are not, however, so much arched, nor are 
they so well closed up, as his general shape and build would lead 



43 THE HORSE. 

one to expect ; his legs and feet are admirable — the bone large and 
flat, and the sinews big and nervous as steel springs ; his feet seem 
almost unconscious of disease; his fetlocks are shaggy; his mane 
voluminous and massive, not seldom, if untrained, falling on both 
sides of his neck, and his tail abundant, both having a peculiar 
crimpled wave, if I may so express myself, the like of which I 
never saw in any horse which had not some strain of his blood." I 
give a sketch on the preceding page of one of these horses, showing 
the shape and action peculiar to them. It is said by good judges 
to be an excellent likeness. 

THE MORGAN HORSE. 

The Morgan Horse has recently been paraded in America as 
a distinct strain, kept pure in its own district for more than half a 
century, and descended from a single horse, in the possession of 
Mr. Justin Morgan, a schoolmaster in Vermont. In the present 
day the " Morgans" are so much sought after that in the year 1856 
the Agricultural Society of Vermont offered a prize for the best 
essay on the subject, which was awarded to Mr. Linsley, an inha- 
bitant of the same state. According to this authority, the founder 
of the family, or strain, was got by a horse called " True Briton," 
which was said to have been stolen, and whose pedigree is there- 
fore doubtful. Mr. Linsley endeavors to prove, however, that he 
was a son of the English thorough-bred horse Traveller, which he 
assumes to be identical with the son of Partner, known as Morton's 
Old Traveller, giving as his authority a pedigree inserted in the 
Albany " Cultivator" of 1846. The same authority is also ad- 
duced to prove that the dam of True Briton and also of Justin 
Morgan's horse were of nearly pure English blood, and that the 
latter was descended from the famous "Cub" mare; but the facts 
adduced seem of the most doubtful nature, and I believe that the 
Morgan horse would in this country be considered as undoubtedly 
half-bred. 

Mr. Linsley describes the founder of the Morgan strain in the 
following terms : — He " was about fourteen hands high, and weighed 
about nine hundred and fifty pounds. His color was dark bay, 
with black legs, mane, and tail. He had no white hair upon him. 
His mane and tail were coarse and heavy, but not so massive as 
has been sometimes described ; the hair of both was straight, and 
not inclined to curl. His head was good, not extremely small, but 
lean and bony, the face straight, forehead broad, ears small, and 
very fine, but set rather wide apart. His eyes were medium size, 
very dark, and prominent, and showed no white round the edge of 
the lid" (Qy. iris?). "His nostrils were very large, the muzzle 
small, and the lips close and firm. His back and legs were per- 
haps his most noticeable points. The former was very short, the 



THE MORGAN HORSE. 49 

shoulder-blades and thigh-bones being very long and oblique, and 
the loins exceedingly broad and muscular. His body was rathe** 
long, round, and deep, close ribbed up ; chest deep and wide, with 
the breast-bone projecting a good deal in front. His legs were 
short, close jointed, thin, but very wide, hard and free from meat, 
with muscles that were remarkably large for a horse of his size, 
and this superabundance of muscle manifested itself at every step. 
His hair was short, and at almost all seasons soft and glossy. He 
had a little long hair about the fetlocks, and for two or three inches 
above the fetlock on the back side of the legs • the rest of his 
limbs were entirely free from it. His feet were small, but well 
shaped, and he was in every respect perfectly sound and free from 
blemish. He was a very fast walker. In trotting his gait was 
slow and smooth, and his step short and nervous * he was not what 
in these days would be called fast, and we think it doubtful whether 
he could trot a mile much, if any, within four minutes, though it 
is claimed by many that he could trot it in three. Although he 
raised his feet but little, he never stumbled. His proud, bold, and 
fearless style of movement, and his vigorous untiring action, have 
perhaps never been surpassed." 

He describes him as being fast for short distances, by which he 
explains that he means a quarter of a mile, which he says was the 
usual distance run in those days. From this celebrated horse are 
descended, more or less remotely, "Black Hawk," " Ethan Allen," 
"American Eagle," and a host of horses celebrated for gameness, 
and many of them for fast-trotting powers. But those who dis- 
pute the claims of Mr. Justin Morgan's horse to be considered the 
founder of the family, assert that before his time a similar horse 
prevailed in this district which was made up of crosses between 
the Canadian horse and the English thorough-bred. I shall, how- 
ever, leave this much-vexed question for the Americans to settle 
among themselves, contenting myself with a description of the mo- 
dern Morgan horse as he is recognised throughout the states of 
America. He is generally, though not universally, admitted to be 
very stout and enduring, with good action, especially in the trot, 
and great hardness of constitution. He shows very little evidence 
of pure blood * indeed it may be said that the reverse is the case, as 
he invariably possesses a thick and long mane and tail, with a con- 
siderable curl in both, signs which may be truly said are fatal to 
his claims. In height he seldom exceeds fifteen hands. His frame 
is corky, but not remarkably well put together, there being gene- 
rally a deficiency in the coupling of the back and loins. The fore- 
head is very light, and carried high, somewhat in the fashion of 
the Canadians, but not so heavy in the crest and junction of the 
neck to the shoulder, though the setting of the head is equally 
thick. On the whole, the Morgan horse may be described as ex- 
5 D 



50 THE HORSE. 

tremely useful, but deficient in what we call "quality," in propor- 
tion to the absence of thorough blood. 

THE AMERICAN TROTTER. 

The true modern trotting horse is a most remarkable 
instance of what may be done by keeping an animal to one kind 
of work for generations, and selecting the specimens best fitted for 
it to breed from. In this country a thorough-bred horse, or even 
one of nearly pure blood, could not be found at any price to trot a 
mile in three minutes, yet in America there are plenty, of blood 
almost entirely derived from the English turf horse, which will 
perform the distance in two minutes and forty seconds, and some 
in considerably less time. In America private and public trotting 
matches in harness have been for many years the chief amusement 
of the town population, and, until very recently, when flat racing 
or running, as it is called there, has been more developed, a fast 
trotter fetched a higher price than any other description of horse. 
Trotting matches are, in fact, the national sport, just as racing is 
that of our own country. Latterly, however, the amusement has 
been somewhat on the decline, the aristocratic classes holding them- 
selves aloof, and patronizing the turf in preference. Still there is 
no diminution in the pace of their trotters, and, on the contrary, 
the celebrated Flora Temple has recently made the best time on 
record, having, on the 15th of October, 1859, when fourteen years 
old, done a third mile heat in two minutes, nineteen and three- 
quarter seconds, and having, in June, 1861, performed three sepa- 
rate mile heats in the wonderfully short time of seven minutes, 
six and a half seconds.* 

Mr. Herbert, in his quarto work on " The Horse of America," 
clearly shows the reason why our transatlantic cousins excel us in 
their trotters, and why they take to this species of amusement in 
preference to others. After enumerating several which do not 
appear to us quite so cogent as to him, he more pertinently says, 
''Another reason, inferior in practical truth to the others adduced, 
but physically superior, is this, — that before American trotters 
could be generally used in Great Britain, the whole system of 
British road-making must be altered, which is not likely to occur. 
On an ordinary English macadamized turnpike, which is exactly 
the same as the hardest central part of the New York Third Ave- 
nue, without any soft track alongside of it, an American trotter 
would pound his shoes off in an hour's trot, and his feet off in a 
week's driving ; and this is doubtless, whatever may be said of the 
objections heretofore offered, one which must operate for ever 
against the general use of trotters after the American fashion, 

* Since the above waa written the renowned "Dexter" has eclipsed all 
previous records, having trotted three separate mile heats in 6m. 5s., and a 
mile in the unprecedented time of 2m. 17]s. — Editor. 



THE AMERICAN TROTTER. 51 

unless they be trained and kept exclusively for sporting purposes. 
This, however, is no more, but even less likely to occur than the 
total alteration of the whole system of English road-making, and 
the entire change of the tastes and habits of the English people : 
since the point which renders the trotting horse so popular here 
would then be wanting, namely, his equal adaptability to ordinary 
road driving and purposes of general utility, and to occasional 
matching and turf amusements of a peculiar though inferior descrip- 
tion." This is the true cause of the " decline and fall" of trotting 
horses in England, for in the early part of the nineteenth century 
there were ten good performers on the trot for one now. The pace 
is not a natural one, and in its highest perfection, especially, it 
must be developed by constant practice. But this is forbidden on 
our modern roads, which, as Mr. Herbert truly remarks, would 
ruin the legs and feet of any horse ridden or driven at such a pace 
as to do a mile in two minutes and thirty seconds. I fully believe 
that the horses of America have sounder legs and feet than those 
of our own country, partly from being kept cooler in their stables, 
partly from their being less stimulated by inordinate quantities of 
oats and beans, but chiefly from their ancestors having been less 
injured by hard roads than those of our own. If this is the case 
we must have in every succeeding generation more and more diffi- 
culty in getting sound roadsters, and such, I believe, is really 
the fact. 

By many people it is supposed that the American trotter is a 
distinct breed or strain of horses, and that we can in this country 
easily obtain plenty of horses able to do their mile " within the 
thirties," by importing individuals and breeding from them. This 
hypothesis, however, appears to be unfounded according to the 
evidence of Mr. Herbert, as recorded in his " magnum opus," and 
that of other writers in the New York sporting press. The former 
gentleman, who is "well up" on this subject, says: — "And first 
we shall find that the time trotter in America is neither an original 
animal of a peculiar and distinct breed, nor even an animal of very 
long existence since his first creation. Secondly, we shall find 
that in an almost incredibly short space of time, owing to the great 
demand for and universal popularity of the animal, united to a 
perfectly devised, and now ubiquitously understood, system of 
breaking, training, and driving him so as to develop all his quali- 
ties to the utmost, the trotting horse of high speed, good endurance, 
showy style of going, and fine figure, has become from a rarity a 
creature of every-day occurrence, to be met with by dozens in the 
eastern and middle states, and scarcely any longer regarded as a 
trotter, unless he can do his mile in somewliere about two minutes 
and a half. Thirdly, it will appear that the trotting horse is, in 
no possible sense, a distinct race, breed, or family of the horse ; 



52 THE HORSE. 

and that his qualities as a trotter cannot be ascribed or traced to 
his origin from, or connection with, any one blood more than an- 
other. It is true, and it is to be regretted, that of trotting horses 
the pedigrees have been so little alluded to, and probably from the 
nature of circumstances are so seldom attainable, that few, indeed, 
can be directly traced to any distance in blood. Enough is known, 
however, to show that some horses of first-rate powers have come 
from the Canadian or Norman-French stock ; some from the ordi- 
nary undistinguished country horse of the southernmost of the mid- 
land states; some from the Vermont family; some from the Indian 
pony; and lastly, some mainly, if not entirely, from the thorough- 
bred. To no one of these families can any superiority be attributed 
as producing trotters of great speed. All have shown their speci- 
mens by means of which to claim their share in the production. 
Only it may be affirmed, generally, that while some very famous 
trotting horses have been nearly, if not entirely, thorough-bred, the 
low, lazy, lounging, daisy-cutting gait and action of the full-blooded 
horse of Oriental blood is not generally compatible with great trot- 
ting action or speed. Still it is true that the best time-trotters 
have not the round, high-stepped action which is prized in carriage- 
horses, or parade-horses for show, and which probably originated 
and existed to the greatest extent in the Flemish or the Hanove- 
rian horse of the coldest of all imaginable strains of blood; and that 
they have in a great measure the long reaching stride, the quick 
gather, and the comparatively low step of the thorough-bred." 

THE NARRAGANSET PACER. 

It is supposed that this beautiful variety of the American 
horse, which is now nearly or quite extinct, is descended from the 
Spanish horse. There are several traditions afloat in support of 
this and other theories, but by general consent it is admitted that 
the above theory as to his origin is the true one. According to 
this, he was introduced into New England by Governor Eobinson, 
from Andalusia, and for many years the breed was kept up for the 
supply of Cuba, the voyage being much shorter than that from the 
mother country, Spain. These horses were of good size and natural 
pacers, the action being on alternate sides, but remarkably easy, 
which is more than can always be said of the modern rackurs 01 
pacers. As the roads improved, however, in the West India 
islands, carriages were introduced, and then, the demand ceasing 
almost entirely, the breed was neglected, and is now unkn:wn in 
its pure form. 

THE AMERICAN THOROUGH-BRED. 

Until the English Thorough-bred Horse is described, it is 
scarcely possible to enter fully into the pedigree of the American, 



THE AMERICAN THOROUGH-BRED. 53 

descended as the latter is from stock imported from the mother 
country. But, taking the fact for granted, I may proceed to allude 
to the progress which has been made in the United States, from 
the date of the first importation. It appears that shortly prior to 
the year 1750, a Mr. Ogle, the Governor of Maryland, was in pos- 
session of Spark, presented to him by Lord Baltimore. About the 
same time he also imported Queen Mab, by Musgrove's gray Arab; 
and, soon afterwards, Colonel Tasker obtained Selima, daughter 
of the Godolphin Arabian; while Colonel Colville's Miss Colville, 
known in the English Stud Book as Wilkes' Old Hautboy mare, 
Colonel Taylor's Jenny Cameron, and Bouth's Crab, were severally 
introduced into the colony. In 1747, Monkey, by the Lonsdale 
bay Arab, though in his twenty-second year, crossed the Atlantic, 
and got some good stock, followed during the next year by Jolly 
Boger, by Boundhead, out of a Partner mare. About 1764, Fear- 
nought, a son of Begulus and Silvertail, and therefore of the very 
highest English blood, went to America, and within a few years 
of that date Morton's Traveller, by Partner, out of a mare by the 
Bloody Buttocks Arabian, which completes the list of the importa- 
tions prior to the War of Independence. It must be observed, 
that, before the year 1829, no Turf Begister existed in America, 
and hence there is not the same guarantee for the fidelity of a 
pedigree as in England, where there are authentic records which 
reach to a much earlier period. Moreover, the war upset the 
homes of so many families, that multitudes of documents were lost; 
but, nevertheless, I believe sufficient has been preserved to prove 
the authenticity of the pedigrees belonging to the horses which I 
have enumerated, and whose progeny can be traced down to the 
present day, their blood being mingled with that of numerous im- 
portations of a more recent date. The love of racing was very soon 
implanted in the colonists of Maryland and Virginia, from whom 
it spread to North and South Carolina, and in these southern states 
the sport has been kept up to the present day with great spirit. 
Tennessee was inoculated with the virus of the racing mania soon 
after its first settlement, as also may be said of Kentucky, both 
states having possessed some very celebrated horses at various 
times. New York joined in at a much later period than the southern 
states, no organized racing-club existing there until after the com- 
mencement of the present century; although there were small 
racecourses at Newmarket and Jamaica before the Bevolution. 
But the energy of the true Yankee sent the New Yorkites ahead, 
and they soon became worthy rivals of the southern statesmen. 
From 1815 to 1845, the great stables of the North and South 
were carried on under a most honorable rivalry ; but at the second 
of these dates, it so happened that a vast number of the most ener- 
5* 



54 THE HORSE. 

getic supporters of the turf in the northern states withdrew from 
the arena, and, as they disappeared, none filled the gaps, except 
a few professed trainers and jockeys, who carried racing on entirely 
as a business, and regardless of that honorable spirit which had 
previously distinguished it. Trotting also came into fashion, and 
the fanatics preached a crusade against both, which took double 
effect upon the sport, already tottering to its fall. It may indeei 
be said, that from 1845 to 1855, racing in America was confined 
entirely to the south ; but about 1855 or 1856 a new jockey-club 
was established in New York, and its members laid out a new race- 
course on Long Island; but still the second effort was not equal to 
the first, and New Orleans has taken the wind altogether out of 
the Long Island sails, by the spirited attempt which has been 
made by Mr. Ten Broeck to match his stud against the first Eng- 
lish horses on their own ground. That he has failed in carrying 
off the Derby with Umpire is no proof of the general inferiority 
of American horses to those of England, any more than his other 
great successes are enough to insure a conviction of the opposite 
condition in any unprejudiced mind. Umpire might have been 
an exceptional horse, and granting to him the high form which he 
was last year (1859) assured to possess, it would prove nothing 
quoad the general form of the horses of his country. Still it 
cannot be denied that they are much nearer to our own than was 
believed to be the case before Mr. Ten Broeck came among us ; but 
how near they are is yet a vexed question, which will take some 
time to settle. 

The American thorough-bred horse is said to be much 
stouter than the modern English strains ; and without doubt Mr. 
Ten Broeck's Prioress can stay better than most English horses, 
though she is not considered by the Americans themselves to be 
quite up to the best staying form which they possess. This sub- 
ject, however, will be better considered after the performances 
of the English horse are carefully examined. It must be remem- 
bered that, with the exception of the horses recently brought over 
to this country, we have no means of comparison beyond the time 
test, which is not a reliable one ; firstly, because we have no time- 
races here ; and, secondly, because none of our long distances are 
run from end to end. As far as I have had an opportunity of 
seeing, and with the single exception of Charleston, all Mr. Ten 
Broeck's horses have been extremely narrow, the crack Umpire in 
particular being " like two deal boards nailed together," as the 
" men of stable mind " say here. His hips are the narrowest 1 
ever saw in a. horse supposed to be of first class, and those of 
Prioress are not much more developed. The celebrated horse, 
Lexington, who is out of the same mare as Umpire, is also reported 
to have been very narrow in the hips, so that probably this pecu- 



VERMONT AND CONESTOGA HORSES. 55 

li&rity runs throughout that strain of blood, but whether derived 
from Alice Carneal or from Boston (who got both Lexington and 
Lecompte, the latter the sire of Umpire) I cannot say. Neverthe- 
less, unless the time-test is utterly fallacious both Lexington and 
Lecompte must have been stout, for they lave each done four 
miles, under seven stone two, in seven minutes twenty-six seconds, 
with a start similar to that adopted in England. Lexington, with 
the same kind of start, has performed the same task in seven min- 
utes twenty-three and a half seconds, and with a running start 
against time, in the extraordinarily short time of seven minute? 
nineteen and three-quarter seconds.* 

THE VERMONT CART-HORSE. 

A distinct breed of draught-horses under this name is de- 
scribed by Mr. Herbert as existing in Vermont and the adjacent 
country, though now, he says, less marked than it was prior to the 
introduction of railroads. I cannot, however, find any other 
authority for it, nor do I quite agree with the above writer in 
thinking the breed, if he rightly describes it, as identical with the 
Cleveland Bay. He says, " These are the very models of what 
draught-horses should be ; combining immense power with great 
quickness, a very respectable turn of speed, fine show, and good 
action. These animals have almost invariably lofty crests, thin 
withers, and well set on heads; and although they are emphati- 
cally draught-horses, they have none of that shagginess of mane, 
tail, and fetlocks, which indicates a descent from the black horse 
of Lincolnshire, and none of that peculiar curliness or waviness 
which marks the existence of Canadian or Norman blood for many 
generations, and which is discoverable in the manes and tails of 
very many of the horses which claim to be pure Morgans. The 
peculiar characteristic, however, of these horses, is the shortness 
of their backs, the roundness of their barrels, and the closeness of 
their ribbing up. One would say that they are ponies until he 
comes to stand beside them, when he is astonished to find that they 
are oftener over than under sixteen hands in height." 

THE CONESTOGA DRAUGHT-HORSE. 

The last on the list of American horses is that known under 
the above name, which was given to it from being produced in the 
valley of Conestoga, within the state of Pennsylvania. It is a very 
large muscular horse, often reaching to seventeen hands and up- 
wards, and closely resembling -the heaviest breeds of German and 

*In a race against time (October 17th, 1867), Kentucky, the famous 
son of Lexington, then four years old, ran 4 miles in 7 min. 31^ sec. The 
first two miles were run in 3 min. 36 sec, the first three in 5 min. 29 sec. 
Kentucky carried a weight of 120 lbs. 



56 



THE HORSE. 




CO.MiSTOGA DRAUGUT-IIORSE. 



Flemish cart-horses. The early settlers of this part of the United 
States were mostly Germans, and they either brought over with 
them some of the horses of their country, or else they have since 
selected from those within their reach the animals most resembling 
in appearance their old favorites when in their fatherland. There 
is, however, no record of the origin of the breed, and all that can 
be done is to describe it as it now exists. 

The accompanying sketch embodies the general appearance 
of these horses, and by comparing it with the London dray-horse, 
it will be seen that it differs only slightly, having the same heavy 
outline of form, united with similar comparatively light limbs, but 
not burdened with the mountains of flesh and heavy crests which 
have been produced in England for purposes of show. In Penn- 
sylvania, these horses are chiefly used for wagons, and some few 
of them, when of inferior shape, for the canal traffic. They are 
good honest workers, and are quicker and lighter in their action 
than might be expected from their weight. Indeed, some of them 
are still used for heavy carriages; but even in Pennsylvania, for 



EARLY MATURITY. 57 

quick work, they are generally replaced by the Vermont horse, or 
some nondescript of mixed blood, with which America is com- 
pletely overrun. 

In color they follow the Flemish horses, except that black is rare 
among them, but like the Flemish they are free from chestnut, and 
the larger proportion of them are bay, brown, or iron grays 



CHAPTER V. 
THE THOROUGH-BRED HORSE. 



Early Maturity — Object of Encouraging the Breed — Essentials m 
the Thorough-bred — Purity of Blood — External Formation — 
Height — Color — Coat, Mane, and Tail. 

EARLY MATURITY. 

It is an undeniable fact, as I believe, that preternaturally 
early maturity is incompatible with lasting qualities of any kind ; 
but, though the same rule generally holds good throughout nature, 
there are some exceptions. Thus, the oak is more lasting than the 
larch, and the elephant outlives the horse, but the goose and the 
duck, which arrive at maturity in the same number of months, do 
not live through a corresponding series of years. The forcing pro- 
cess in gardening is always productive of tenderness, whether the 
produce be the cucumber or the sea-kale, and this tenderness is 
only another name for imperfect formation to resist decay. In the 
days of Eclipse and Childers they were permitted to attain their 
full growth without forcing, and, not being wanted till five years 
old, their ligaments, ter dons, and bones had plenty of time to be 
consolidated before they were submitted to the strains and jerks of 
the extended gallop. There is also reason to believe that they 
were not nearly so much or so soon stimulated by large feeds of 
oats, as is now invariably the custom, but that they were allowed 
to remain at grass, with the shelter of a hovel, during the first 
three or foar years of their lives. All this is now changed ; the 
foal is filled with corn as soon as he will eat it, and at the end of 
the first year he is furnished as much as the old-fashioned three- 
year-old. One chief difficulty of the trainer now is to keep his 
horse sound, and, unfortunately, as disease is in most cases heredi- 
tary, and too many unsound stallions are bred from, the difficulty 
is yearly on the increase. Without doubt roaring is far more 
common than it used to be, and the possession of enlarged joints, 
and back sinews, is the rule instead of the exception. During the 



53 THE HORSE. 

last ten years, the Derby has five times been won by an unsound 
animal, which the trainer was almost immediately afterwards obliged 
to put out of work, either from diseased feet or a break-down, and 
yet few breeders think of refusing to use such horses as these. 
Nevertheless, good legs and feet, and a hearty constitution, are no 
small recommendations, and Mr. Merry may thank them for win- 
ning him the great prize of the year 1860, with Thormanby, a son 
of that wonderful mare Alice Hawthorne. Thormanby, however, 
is not an instance of a colt having been reserved till he was arrived 
at his growth, for there are few horses which have been more used, 
having run fourteen times as a two-year-old; but his naturally 
excellent legs and feet, and the fine down on which he is trained, 
have enabled him to pull through unscathed. Now the reliance 
which was placed by his backers on these good qualities, proves 
that he is an exception to the rule ; for if they were at all common, 
they would be of comparatively little advantage. The truth really 
is, that the average racehorse of modern times is of such forced 
growth, that he is unable to bear the wear and tear of training as 
he used to do, and hence a much larger percentage of unsound 
animals is to be met with. He is bred mainly for speed, super- 
added to which is as much stoutness and soundness of constitution 
as can be procured among the most speedy horses at the service 
of the breeder. By a perseverance in this method of selection, he 
has undoubtedly become more speedy, and less lasting in propor- 
tion to his speed, that is to say, he cannot be extended for as long 
a time as he used to bear with impunity. But that he cannot 
cover as much ground in a given time as formerly is, I think, an 
error, — for there is every reason to believe that any distance may 
now be run in as short a time at least, as either in the middle of 
the last century or the beginning of this. 

OBJECT OF ENCOURAGING THE BREED OF HORSES. 

The great object of encouraging the breed of racehorses is, 
however, lost sight of, if suitable crosses for hunting, cavalry, and 
hack-mares cannot be obtained from their ranks. In these three 
kinds, soundness of the feet and legs is all important, together with 
a capacity to bear a continuation of severe work. These qualities 
are highly developed in the Arab, and until lately were met with 
in his descendants on the English turf. Even now a ho;-«e with a 
stain in his pedigree will not bear the amount of training which a 
thorough-bred will sustain, his health and spirits soon giving way 
if forced to go through the work which the racehorse requires to 
make him " fit." But the legs and feet of the latter are the draw- 
backs to his use, and the trainer of the present day will generally 
be sadly taxed to make them last through a dry summer. Our 
modern roads are also much harder since the introduction of mac- 



OBJECT OF ENCOURAGING THE BREED. 59 

adaurization, and thus, in proportion to our greater demands, is the 
absence of the material to meet them. A hack that is not pretty 
well bred is now neglected, except for high weights, because his 
paces are not soft and pleasant, and he does not satisfy the eye. 
But how many of the fashionable sort will bear constant use on 
the road without becoming lame ? And how many sound horses 
are there to be met with out of a hundred, taken at random from 
the ranks of any kind tolerably well bred ? Every horse proprietor 
will tell you, scarcely five per cent.; and some will even go so far 
as to say, that a sound horse is utterly unknown. In considering 
the principles and practice of breeding, I shall again refer to this 
subject; but I wish now to impress upon my readers that while 
the racehorse of 1860 is as fast as ever, as stout as ever, and as 
good looking as ever, he is made of more perishable materials in 
proportion as he comes to maturity at an earlier period. Any of 
our modern two-year-olds would probably give two stone, and a 
beating to Eclipse at the same age, but if afterwards they were put 
to half-bred mares for the purpose of getting hacks, chargers, or 
hunters, the stock of Eclipse or Childers would be much more 
valuable than any which we have at present. We are sadly in 
want of sound and well bred stallions for general purposes, and if 
the government of the country does not soon interfere, and adopt 
some means of furnishing these islands with them, we shall be 
beaten on our own ground, and shall have to import sound useful 
horses from Belgium, France, Hungary, or Prussia, whichever 
country can best spare them. The old-fashioned and sound tho- 
rough-bred horse has been the means of improving the above three 
breeds ; and even now we possess horses which are perfect in every 
other respect but soundness, being excellent hacks, hunters, and 
light carriage-horses, and often all in one. This last kind is the 
perfection of the horse ; and if many such could be produced it 
would be a great advantage, because most people would like a horse 
which could " make himself generally useful," if such an animal 
could be obtained. Without high-breeding, however, this is im- 
possible; and yet with most of our purest strains, though it is 
attainable for a time, the condition in which it exists does not last 
long, in consequence of the effect of the hard road upon their soft 
legs or contracted feet. Consequently, as I have already remarked, 
there is a necessity for government interference to produce such a 
breed of thorough-bred horses, by careful selection, as shall give 
us the above three kinds of horses useful in civil life, from which 
may be culled a plentiful supply of cavalry horses, whenever wanted; 
for the very same qualities are demanded in all, and what will suit 
the one will be equally advantageous to the other. 

But even though the thorough-bred horse is well fitted to com- 
pete with others in all cases where speed is the chief point of trial — 



t)0 THE HORSE. 

as in flat-racing, steeple-chasing, hunting, &c, — yet he is not so 
well qualified for some kinds of harness-work, or for road-work of 
any kind, as the horse expressly bred for these purposes. There 
is no doubt that thorough-bred horses might be selected and bred 
expressly for this kind of work, and would excel all others, because 
originally their limbs and constitutions were at least as sound as, 
or perhaps even sounder than, any other class of horses; but while 
they are selected and bred solely for speed, without much reference 
to these other qualities, it is useless to expect much improvement ; 
but on the contrary, they may be expected to become yearly more 
and more soft and yielding. For many purposes the Eastern horse 
is wholly unfit — as, for instance, for heavy and dead pulls ; here 
his high courage, light weight, and hasty temper are adverse to 
the performance of the task, and he is far excelled by the old Eng- 
lish, or modern improved cart-horse. No thorough-bred horse 
would try again and again at a dead pull like many of our best 
breeds of cart-horses ; and therefore he is little calculated for work 
which requires this slow struggling kind of exertion. The pull of 
the Eastern horse, or his descendant, is a snatch ; and though it 
may to a certain extent be modified by use, yet it can never be 
brought up to the standard of the English cart-horse, even if the 
weight of carcase and size and strength of limb of the former 
could be sufficiently increased. 

ESSENTIALS IN THE THOROUGH-BRED. 

Such then are the general qualities of the thorough-bred 
horse and the purposes to which he can be beneficially applied. It 
remains now to consider the formation and specific characteristics 
best adapted to the turf, which is his chief arena ; and also to the 
hunting-field, which now absorbs a very large number of his breed. 
Finally, it will be necessary to consider him as a means of improv- 
ing other breeds, such as the cavalry-charger, hack and harness 
horse, but these subjects will fall under the respective heads here 
mentioned. 

PURITY OF BLOOD. 

In the first place purity op blood must be considered as a 
sine qua non, for without it a horse cannot be considered thorough- 
bred, ;md therefore we have only to ascertain the exact meaning 
of the term " blood." It is not to be supposed that there is any 
real difference between the blood of the thorough-bred horse, and 
that of the half-bred animal ; no one could discriminate between 
the two by any known means ; the term " blood" is here synony- 
mous with breed, and by purity of blood is meant purity in the 
breeding of the individual animal under consideration ; that is to 
say, that the horse which is entirely bred from one source is pure 
from any mixture with any other, and may be a pure Suffolk 



EXTERNAL FORMATION. 61 

Punch, or a pure Clydesdale, or a pure thorough-bred horse. But 
all these terms are comparative, since there is no such animal as a 
perfectly purely bred horse of any breed, whether cart-horse, hack, 
or racehorse ; all have been produced from an admixture with 
other kinds, and though now kept as pure as possible, yet they 
were originally compounded from varying elements ; and thus the 
racehorse of 1700, was obtained from a mixture of Turks, Arabs, 
and Barbs. Even the best and purest thorough-breds are stained 
with some slight cross with the old English or Spanish horse, as I 
have heretofore shown, and therefore it is only by comparison that 
the word pure is applicable to them or any others. But since the 
thorough-bred horse, as he is called, has long been bred for the 
race-course, and selections have been made with that view alone, 
it is reasonable to suppose that this breed is the best for that pur- 
pose, and that a stain of any other is a deviation from the clearest 
stream into one more muddy, and therefore impure; the conse- 
quence is, that the animal bred from the impure source fails in 
some of the essential characteristics of the pure breed, and is in 
so far useless for this particular object. Now, in practice this is 
found to be the case, for in every instance it has resulted that the 
horse bred with the slightest deviation from the sources indicated 
by the stud-book, is unable to compete in lasting power with those 
which are entirely ot pure blood. Hence it is established as a 
rule, that for racing purposes every horse must be thorough-bred; 
that is, as I have already explained, descended from a sire and 
dam whose names are met with in the stud-book. 

EXTERNAL FORMATION. 

Next comes the external shape or conformation of the 
racehorse, which is a subject very much studied by those who have 
the selection and management of them. Experienced trainers, and 
those who have watched the performances of the celebrities of the 
turf for successive years, will tell you that "the horse can run in 
all forms," and so no doubt he can as an exception, but the rule 
nevertheless is, that there is a standard which should be regarded 
as the best suited for the race-course, and this will vary somewhat 
according to the performance which is required of each individual 
There is no doubt that the most skilful selection is not always at- 
tended with success, and the statistics of the turf do not lead us 
to believe that £1000 invested under the advice of John Scott or 
John Day, in the purchase of a yearling, will always bring a re- 
muneration. Indeed, the contrary has so often been the case, that 
high-priced yearlings are generally regarded with suspicion, when 
they make their first appearance on the course. The winner of 
the Derby of 1860 went a-begging, and was at last bought for a 
very moderate price. So also with Butterfly, the winner of the Oaks. 
6 



62 



THE HORSE. 



no store was set upon her until she came to be tried; and even on 
the morning of the race she was not generally thought good enough 
to win. The celebrated Blink Bonny was a mean-looking mare, and 
would not have fetched £50 at Tattersall's, from her appearance 




FISnERMAN. 



alone, and that wonderful animal Fisherman was never liked till he 
proved his powers. Still, it cannot be denied that a good judge will 
select the ten best horses out of twenty, or perhaps out of a hundred ; 
but he will possibly leave the very best out of his list. The theo- 
retical rule is simple enough, but it requires great experience, and 
a good eye to carry it out in practice. It is simply this, that, 
cseteris paribus, the horse which is formed in the mould most like 
that of the greatest number of good racehorses, will run the best. 
Thus, supposing it is found that out of fifty good horses, forty- 
nine have neat heads, light necks, deep chests, oblique shoulders, 
long racing hind-quarters, strong hocks, &c, the presumption will 
be that a horse resembling those forty-nine in shape, will also re- 
semble them in speed and endurance. On the other hand, it is 



EXTERNAL FORMATION. G3 

admitted on the turf, that high-breeding is of more consequence 
than external shape, and that of two horses, one perfect in shape, 
but of an inferior strain of blood, and the other of the most win- 
ning blood, but not so well formed in shape, the latter will be the 
most likely to perform to the satisfaction of his owner on the race- 
course. On this principle the proverb has been framed and handed 
down to us, that " an ounce of blood is worth a pound of bone," 
and with the above explanation such is really the case. But in 
spite of all this recognised superiority of blood, it is indisputable 
that for the highest degree of success there must be not only high 
purity of blood, and that of the most winning strains, but there must 
also be a frame of the most useful character, if not always of the 
most elegant form. Many of our very best horses have been plain, 
and even coarse-looking — as, for instance, most of the Melbournes, 
and especially that very fast horse, Sir Tatton Sykes ; but in spite 
of their plainness, all their points are good and useful, and the 
deficiency is in elegance, not in real utility. On the other hand, 
there are some strains which unite elegance with utility, such 
as the fast and stout Venisons, which are remarkable for their 
beautiful frames and neat Arabian heads. But there must always 
be a distinction made between what is really useful and what is 
only agreeable to the eye. There are some characteristics which, 
over and above their mechanical advantages, indicate high-breeding, 
and as such are regarded with especial favor by purchasers. For 
these a term has of late years been invented, the meaning of which 
is well understood, but somewhat difficult to define. Thus, we 
hear it often remarked, that a particular horse is deficient in "qua- 
lity," or that he has it in perfection ; and in proportion to the one 
or the other of these conditions is he meant to be praised or con- 
demned. It is not simply a word synonymous with " breeding," 
for a horse may show high breeding, and yet be deficient in "qua- 
lity," but if with a look which convinces you that he has a pure 
pedigree, he conjoins a perfect symmetry in all his parts, and in 
the shapes displayed by the thorough-bred, he then comes up to 
the description which stamps a horse in these days with the highest 
seal of approbation, for " he has plenty of quality." 

But what is the recognised form of the racehorse ? I must here 
explain to the tyro that the word " form" is used with two different 
significations by racing men, and like the word " box" is very puz- 
zling to foreigners. In the common acceptation it is synonymous 
with " shape," and merely means the mechanical development of 
the individual. But in the language of the turf, when we say that 
a horse is "in form," we intend to convey to our hearers that he 
is in high condition and fit to run. So again, the word is used i:i 
still another sense, for we speak of a horse's " form" when we wish 
to allude to his powers on the turf, as compared with other well- 



64 



THE HORSE. 



known animals. Thus, if it is supposed that two three-year-olds, 
carrying the same weight, would run a mile-and-a-half, and come in 
abreast, it is said, that " the form" of the one is equal to that of 
the other. It is necessary, therefore, in order to make a descrip- 
tion intelligible, when using the term in its mechanical significa- 
tion, to add the adjective, external, although, at first sight, it may 
appear to be an instance of tautology, for it might be alleged that 
internal forms can only be ascertained by dissection. With this 
explanation, I must now proceed to discuss what are generally con- 
sidered to be the best shapes, for the purpose of combining speed 
with stoutness, remembering that we are examining the thorough- 
bred horse, and are not alluding to any other. As an instance of 
a very opposite conformation to that of Fisherman at page 62, I 
insert here a portrait of Saunterer, both after careful paintings by 




SA5JNTERER. 



Mr. Barraud. These are generally admitted to have been the two 
best horses of their time, yet it is scarcely possible to imagine a 
greater difference to exist in first-class animals, than is displayed 
by them. Fisherman, short and strong, looks more like a hunter 
than a racehorse ; while Saunterer, long and elegant, appears in- 



EXTERNAL FORMATION. 65 

capable of carrying more than ten stone. The student will do 
well to study these animals carefully, but it must not be omitted 
that the portrait of Fisherman was taken after he was thrown out 
of training. 

The body or trunk is the grand centre of all the muscular pul- 
lies and bony levers, which are used to move the horse, and it 
must, therefore, first come under consideration, although, as a 
matter of convenience, the horseman generally commences with 
the head. It is quite true that it in turn receives its orders from 
the brain, as will be hereafter explained, in treating of the nervous 
system, but as a mere machine it may be regarded independently 
of that organ altogether. It must, however, be viewed in three 
different aspects, inasmuch as it has three different offices to per- 
form. These are, first, to carry its load, and propel it by means 
of the levers connected with it. Secondly, to afford room for the 
heart and lungs to perform their functions in its " chest," without 
interfering with the play of the shoulders ; and, thirdly, to lodge 
an efficient apparatus of nutrition. The first of these divisions 
comprehends the back, loins, and croup; the second is the 
chest ; and the third may be considered under the head of the 

BACK-RIBS, PLANK, AND BELLY. 

The Back, Loins, and Croup of the race-horse, as indeed of 
all horses but those used exclusively for draught, are generally 
described as necessarily moulded more or less in the form of an 
arch. Every architect is aware that this formation is best adapted 
to carry weight. A straight-backed greyhound is by some expe- 
rienced coursers, preferred to one which has a slight arch in that 
part ; but in this animal there is no weight to be carried beyond 
that of his own carcase, and, therefore, even granting the supe- 
riority in him of a straight loin (which I do not), there is no 
analogy between the two animals. Nor do I believe altogether in 
the received theory which attaches importance to the arched loin, 
because of its greater capacity for bearing weight from its mechani- 
cal form. Practically I concede, as an admitted fact, that a horse 
with this construction of frame will carry weight better than one 
which has a hollow loin; but, on examining the skeleton of each, 
it will be seen that in neither are the bodies of the vertebrae in 
this part of the spine arranged so as to form an arch, or if there 
is one, it has its concavity, not its convexity upwards, which cer- 
tainly will not conduce to its weight-bearing powers. The fact 
really is, that in the arched loin the spinous processes are unusually 
long, and are raised into a crest like the high withers. By this 
development of bone an extra space is afforded, for both the lodg- 
ment and attachment of muscles, and herein is the secret of the 
extra power. Between the pelvis and the bodies of the vertebrae 
a true arch is formed, and according to the slope or fall of the 
6* E 



66 THE HORSE. 

quarters will it be useful in carrying weight; but this is quite 
irrespective of the loin, which may be arched or flat in conjunction 
with either formation. It is, however, most common to find an 
arched loin united with an inclined pelvis, and when the two are 
found together, the horse possessing this formation may be con- 
sidered so far as " up to weight." Sometimes we see the pelvis 
inclined, but the tail set on high, and the loin hollow, and then we 
may surely predicate that there will be a want of power in these 
parts, and that the seven stone of Lord Redesdale will be quite 
sufficient for the animal to carry. With this objectionable shape, 
there is a hollow on each side of the croup, which is very charac- 
teristic of the defect, and which is carefully eschewed by the expe- 
rienced horseman. If the spine between the two supports afforded 
by the fore and hind extremities were really an arch, length would 
but little affect it, for we know that an arch of ninety feet span, is 
no stronger than one of a hundred feet, if both are properly con- 
structed; but being nearly a straight line, with its component parts 
kept in their proper places, by a series of levers and pullies, length 
tells most unfavorably; and " a short back, with plenty of length 
below," is the height of the horseman's ambition to possess. 

Mr. Percivall has fallen into a strange error in estimating the 
advantages of a long back, as may be readily seen on an examina- 
tion of the following passage : — " Regarding the dorsal portion of 
the spine, with its superimposed burthen, as a pole or lever, sup- 
ported in front by the fore limbs, and behind by the back limbs, 
after the manner of a barrel of beer, or a sedan between its bearers; 
it is manifest, that the greater its length, the greater must be the 
leverage, and consequent reduction of the weight of the burthen. 
On this principle, the legs of the long-backed horse are actually 
sustaining less load than those of the short-backed horse, even 
though their riders or burthens may be of equivalent weights, from 
the circumstance of their operating at a greater distance from the 
load." The fallacy of this argument is apparent to every person 
who has the slightest knowledge of mechanical powers; but as my 
readers may not at all be in a position to estimate its value, I shall 
just make a few observations upon it, as I have heard it adduced 
on several occasions, to support the advantage of a long back. Now 
we will suppose a weight of 500 pounds on a plank, supported upon 
four props, two being five feet from the other two, and the pairs 
one foot apart, resembling, in fact, the relative position of the feet 
of a horse. Let the whole be arranged on a weighing machine, so 
that only the four legs touch its table, and take the weight. Then 
remove the two pairs of legs to a distance of six feet, and again 
take the weight. According to Mr. Percivall it ought to be less 
than before, but, tested by actual experiment, there will not be the 
hundredth part of a grain variation, even if the instrument is surfi- 



EXTERNAL FORMATION. 67 

ciently delicate to register that weight. A. and B. carry a weight 
between them, suspended to a pole, and they find it more conve- 
nient to have that pole tolei-ably long, because they can shift the 
weight from one to the other more easily than with a shorter one, 
but they carry the same weight in either case. A. can raise it by 
means of his long lever more easily than with a short one, but he 
can only effect this by making use of B.'s hand as a fulcrum, and 
for the moment throwing the weight off himself upon it, while B. 
returns the compliment in his turn, and both are relieved. For 
the mere purpose of carrying weight, therefore, a short back is to 
be preferred ; but there is a limitation put to this by the necessity 
for length of limb to give pace, and if the legs are too long for the 
back, the action of the fore-quarter is impeded by the hind, and 
vice versd. Hence, in all horses, a reasonable length is preferred, 
and this will vary according to the occasion for weight-carrying 
power. In the thorough-bred horse, pace is essential, and his back 
must consequently be of sufficient length to allow the free use of 
such limbs as will give stride enough to develop it. We shall 
hereafter find, that the cart-horse may have a much shorter back, 
even though he has no weight to carry, but he requires strong 
couplings of the hind and fore-quarter for the former to act upon, 
in dragging heavy weights, and as in him pace, beyond the walk, 
is never required, a short back may be allowed to be a great advan- 
tage, without any attendant evil. 

The most important elements of strength in the back and loins 
are the depth and breadth of its muscles, for they, and not the 
bones, as I have shown, are the real mechanical means by which 
not only weight is carried but propelled. Now to lodge these mus- 
cles, there must be high spinous processes, wide hips, and such a 
formation of the ribs as to give width at their upper parts. Gene- 
rally speaking the two last coincide, but sometimes the hips stand 
out in a very "ragged" or prominent position, while the ribs are 
flat. This formation, however, comes next to the most approved 
combination, and is far better than the narrow hips and flat sides 
which we now see in too many of our thorough-bred horses. In 
connection with this division of the body may be taken the croup, 
the upper outline of which is formed by the prolongation of the 
spine towards the root of the tail; but the essential parts are made 
up by the pelvis. It is very generally assumed that in order to 
develop high speed, the pelvis must be long, and this I believe to 
be perfectly true ; but the length need not be in a perfectly hori- 
zontal direction, and is I think much better if developed at an 
inclination of about twenty-five degrees, that is to say, with a con- 
siderable fall. With this formation there may be the same length 
for the attachment of muscles, and the same leverage in their action 
on the thigh, for the situation of the hip joint (or round bone) is 



68 THE HORSE. 

not altered in relation to them, though it is lower and more forward 
in reference to the spine. Hence the muscles which draw the 
thigh forward have more power, ami also act much more quickly, 
giving that rapid thrust of the hind legs forward which is essential 
to good and strong action. With the perfectly horizontal croup 
you may have a long sweeping stroke which tells over such a course 
as Newmarket, but you very rarely meet with a quick coupling and 
uncoupling, unless the pelvis is set on the sacrum or continuation 
of the spine, at a considerable angle, so as to give the quarters 
more or less droop. Most of our best horses have exhibited this 
formation, while a great number of very handsome, but utterly 
useless brutes, might be enumerated which possess the high croup 
of the Arab in an exaggerated condition, of which Mr. Gratwick's 
Ethiopian is a good example. If the portraits of the Godolphin 
Barb are at all to be depended on, we are indebted to him for the 
introduction of this useful, though not particularly elegant shape, 
and I believe that it is in this direction, and in point of size, that 
he has been so useful in the stud. The eye is captivated by the 
animal, which, as the dealers say, "has both ends up;" and expe- 
rience teaches every horseman, who will profit by it, that both the 
stargazer and the high-crouped horse are to be avoided. In select- 
ing the thorough-bred horse, then, choose such as have a deep and 
wide back and loin, avoiding either the " roach back," which causes 
that part to be inflexible, and the hollow one, which tends to give 
way too much under weight, but regarding as most desirable such 
a width of ribs and hips, and depth of spinous processes as shall 
give sufficient lodgment for muscles, and looking also for a proper 
length of spine, not too short for stride, nor too long for strength. 
Lastly, let the pelvis be attached at such an angle as to give a slight 
droop to the quarters, whether the tail be set on in correspondence 
with it or not, for the dock does not always come out of the pelvis 
in the same position viewed in relation to that part alone. 

Some of the above opinions are in opposition to those of Mr. 
Percivall, who objects to a great width of hip in the race-horse, 
and also asserts that he cannot be too lengthy and straight in his 
quarters. He says, " Although the race-horse may prove disadvan- 
tageous^ broad across his hips, I believe he will never be found 
either too lengthy or too straight in his quarters; by which I mean 
the length and elevation of an imaginary line carried from either 
hip to the point of his quarter or of another carried from the sum- 
mit of his rump to the root of his hock. Such straight formation 
of quarter implies small degree of inclination in the position of the 
pelvis, the effect of which is extension of the angles between the 
pelvis and the femoral bones, and corresponding increase of the dis- 
tances between the pelvis and the stifles in front, and between the 
pelvic and hocks behind; thereby augmenting the dimensions of 



EXTERNAL FORMATION. 69 

the muscles running between these salient points, and at the same 
time furnishing them with, under the circumstances, the greatest 
advantages in their action. Length and straightness in the quar- 
ters must therefore be regarded as characteristic attributes of the 
race-horse." Of the probability of meeting with too great a width 
of hip in the race-horse I am extremely doubtful, and until I see 
it I shall continue sceptical. The Melbournes, which have this 
part wider than in any other strain, are certainly not to be despised, 
and, in spite of Mr. Percivall, I must, on the contrary, continue to 
admire them, whenever they are to be found ; my chief regret is, 
that wide hips are so scarce among the descendants of that horse. 
The second division of the body, or the chest, in the 
thorough-bred horse, must afford sufficient room for the heart and 
lungs, but it must not be too wide, or it will interfere with the free 
play of the shoulder-blade as it glides on the side. An open bosom 
is regarded as a sure sign of want of pace by every racing man of 
experience, and I know of no single exception. One of the finest two- 
year olds I ever saw in every other respect was Lord Standbroke's 
Rose de Florence ; but I could have laid any reasonable odds that 
she would be deficient in pace, because she was made as wide as a 
cart-horse between the forelegs, and so she proved to be on trial. 
A horse of fifteen hands three, or sixteen hands when in stud con- 
dition should measure at least seventy-four inches, and should be 
wide through the part where the rider's knees come on the saddle; 
but below this the ribs should rapidly shelve inwards, and in this 
way allow the shoulder points to come closer together, and the 
elbows to act without being " tied." The anatomy of this part is 
treated of elsewhere, and I am now regarding it simply in propor- 
tion to the rest of the body. Anatomically, and considered per se, 
a round or barrel-like chest is the best, because it admits of more 
free expansion and contraction, but when either high speed or 
smooth action is required, this formation is objectionable for the 
reasons I have given above, and in all cases it is to be avoided in 
the thorough-bred horse, while in some other breeds it must be 
looked for with great anxiety. It has been proved that good wind 
may be obtained from a chest possessing great depth without much 
width, and in some cases with a very narrow bosom, as in the cele- 
brated Crucifix (dam of Priam) ; and as the opposite proportions 
are incompatible with speed, they must on that account be alto- 
gether rejected. The withers are generally thin, and sometimes 
raised quite into a razor-like form, which, however, is a defect, as 
it is attended with no advantages to counterbalance the difficulty 
which it presents in the way of the saddler, who is constantly being 
called on to prevent his tree hurting the horse's back. A mode- 
rate development of the spinous processes is required to give attach- 
ment to the muscles which support the neck and move the shoulder, 



70 THE HORSE. 

but the excessive height which we sometimes see is not of the 
slightest avail for this purpose. 

The next and last component parts of the body are the 
back-ribs, plank, and belly. Here we have chiefly to consider 
the proper lodgment of the organs of nutrition ; but there is also 
the junction of the fore and hind quarters to come under review. 
For both these purposes the back-ribs should be long, or, as such 
a formation is generally called, " deep," so as not only to give pro- 
tection to the contents of the belly, but to afford a strong attach- 
ment to the muscles which connect the chest to the hips. The 
space, also, between the latter and the last rib should not be large, 
or there will be an element of weakness ; but if too limited, the 
action in the gallop will be confined, and the hind legs will not be 
brought sufficiently forward. About the breadth of the hand is 
the proper allowance to make for this space in a horse of average 
size and make, and either more or less than this may be considered 
a defect. To obtain this formation, the ribs themselves must be 
set wide apart, and not huddled up together, as you sometimes see, 
leaving a great space between the last and the hip. When the 
back-ribs are long, the lower outline of the belly swells consider- 
ably below the level of the girth-place, and a very elegant shape 
is developed, as well as one generally united with a hardy consti- 
tution. Sometimes, it is true, the two are not combined, and now 
and then we meet with a very good feeder and robust animal with 
shallow back ribs ; but the rule may be considered to be as I have 
stated it, and the purchaser will do well to attend to it in making 
his selection, when he knows nothing of the character of the indi- 
vidual. For fast road-work, where the failure of the legs is gene- 
rally the limit to the amount of work, a very heavy carcase is an 
objection, as it increases the weight upon them ; and an overtopped 
harness-horse — that is, one with a body too big for his legs — is a 
most worthless brute ; but in the thorough-bred there is seldom 
this formation, and the tendency is, on the other hand, to be too 
light in the flank, rather than too deep. A light-carcased or 
herring-gutted horse when " set" for the race-course or the fast 
hunting country looks cut in two, and his performances generally 
correspond with his appearance. 

Projecting forward with a beautiful sweep, the neck comes 
out of the chest in this kind of horse with a most elegant outline. 
Of a greater length than in any other, it is also proportionally 
thin; but both these dimensions may easily be exaggerated, a very 
long and thin neck being objectionable, and rarely corresponding 
with good wind. The lines resemble greatly those of the neck of 
the gamecock ; and when there is a decided angle about three or 
four inches from the jaw, the horse is said to be " cock-throppled," 
and it is then generelly supposed that he is more than usually 



EXTERNA. FORMATION. 71 

liable to become a roarer or a whistler. The curve of this part a 
good deal depends upon the breaking and subsequent riding, differ- 
ent hands producing a great variation in the carriage ; but if the 
bones are so formed and connected together that the natural curve 
has its concavity upwards, it is almost impossible to produce a 
proper bend in the other direction, though still much may be ac- 
complished by perseverance. A " ewe neck," as this is called, is 
very objectionable on this account; but it is very often combined 
with speed, fine action, and great gameness. More depends upon 
the junction between the head and neck, than upon the latter in 
itself, for by long-continued perseverance, it may be made so supple 
as to bend at the rider's will; but if the jaws are too narrow to 
allow the head to bend upon the neck, no means that can be ap- 
plied will make any impression, and the result is that the mouth is 
spoiled, and frequently the temper also. A large and free wind- 
pipe, that is, one of sufficient diameter for the passage of air, and 
not tied down by any bands of fascia, will be necessary for good 
wind; and this point should specially be examined. 

In the head is contained the organ of intelligence, which is 
also the chief seat of that nervous energy which animates the 
whole body. Here also are the eyes, and the external apertures of 
the breathing apparatus ; so that the form of this part of the body 
is of great importance. Size is power, and, cseteris paribus, a large 
brain is to be regarded as a most valuable adjunct. Hence the 
head should be wide above the eyes, as well as between the ears, 
and somewhat full or projecting in the forehead also, in order to 
give lodgment to a brain of good volume. It is the great develop- 
ment of this organ in the thorough-bred and his Eastern relations, 
that gives the extraordinary stoutness and fire for which they are 
so remarkable ; and therefore a horse of this breed deficient in 
volume of brain will be found in these respects no better than his 
low-bred rivals. In every other part, the weight should be reduced 
to the minimum necessary for carrying on the functions peculiar 
to it, save only the eye, a very small one being generally found to 
be prone to disease. The thorough-bred horse has a beautifully 
full and gazelle-like eye ; but in this organ many half-bred animals 
are quite equal to him — the eye of the cart-horse, however, show- 
ing the opposite extreme. A very prominent or unnaturally con- 
vex eye, called a " buck eye," is not to be regarded as desirable, 
being an evidence of shortness of sight, and therefore not to be 
confounded with the full and soft expression indicative of good 
manners, high courage when roused, and soundness. Next to the 
eyes in importance are the nostrils, which should be open, and 
when the horse has gallopped should stand out stiffly, showing the 
red lining membrane, and admitting the air freely. Of course, 
even the smallest nostrils are of larger area than the windpipe ; 



72 THE HORSE. 

but there is generally a coincidence between their size and that of 
the internal passages higher up, and on that account a patent nos- 
tril is to be looked for with some anxiety. I have known some 
horses with small nostrils possess excellent wind, because in them 
the internal conformation was of full size, and if, as I before re- 
marked, the area of the two nostrils together is always much 
greater than that of the windpipe, they cannot in themselves offer 
any impediment to breathing. Without a trial, however, as the 
internal passages cannot be measured, the size of the nostrils must 
be accepted as the best guide to that of the more essential parts, 
and practically this is sufficient for general purposes, only inferior 
to an actual trial. The ears should be moderately long, thin, and 
not inclined to " lop." The muzzle should be fine ; but in those 
very pointed jaws, which their owners regard with so much pride, 
as " small enough to drink out of a quart pot," the nostrils are 
seldom large enough, and hence they are to be regarded with great 
suspicion, beautiful as they undoubtedly are. A slight concavity 
in the front line, descending from the forehead to the front of the 
muzzle, is regarded as a mark of breeding, and, if not too marked, 
deservedly so; but a very deep concavity is often attended with a 
vicious temper. Lastly, a lean and wide lower jaw should not be 
omitted as a grand desideratum ; the former point is merely a sign 
of breeding, but the latter is (as I before remarked in describing 
the neck) essential to the proper bending of the one part on the 
other. The experienced horseman always passes his fingers be- 
tween the angles, and if there is not plenty of room, he knows that 
the head cannot be well carried, and he is inclined to suspect that 
the larynx will be impeded in its functions, and that, consequently, 
respiration will be affected either by roaring, whistling, or some or 
other of the many forms of " making a noise." With all these 
dimensions, which may, comparatively, readily be described, there 
should be combined a cheerful and airy expression of countenance, 
without any appearance of vice. The thorough-bred horse is not 
often too sluggish, and it is not in that direction that we should 
look for infirmities of temper ; nor is it easy to describe the marks 
or signs by which vice of any kind can be at once recognised from 
the mere expression. Still the horseman will do well to study the 
countenance of this as well as other breeds of horses, and he will 
find, in course of time, that no little assistance will be derived 
from it. 

The Shoulder-blade is, like the head, peculiarly formed in 
the Eastern horse, having greater obliquity in its position, and a 
superior length and breadth, as compared with all others. For the 
reasons which may be alleged for the desirability of these character- 
istics, I must refer to pages 21-22, where I have already given them. 
Suffice it to observe, that an obliquely-placed and broad blade, well 



EXTERNAL FORMATION. 73 

clothed with muscles, is the desirable formation of this part, added 
to a well-developed " point," as the prominence at the joint between 
the blade and true arm-bone is called by the horseman. If this is 
too level and smooth, the muscles which are attached to it have 
not sufficient leverage ; while if it is very ragged and prominent, 
it is a mark of diseased or excessive growth of bone, and is gene- 
rally attended with a stiffness of the part. Indeed, in examining 
a shoulder blade, freedom of action is to be regarded much more 
than its exact position when at rest ; for if you have the desired 
effect, it matters not (except for breeding purposes) whether it is 
exceptional or not; and, as a matter of course, it is better to have 
a freely-playing shoulder which when at rest is too upright than a 
perfectly formed one confined to its place, as we sometimes see it. 
The oblique shoulder-blade is specially required in all horses which 
come down upon their fore legs after a spring, whether this is in 
the gallop, or the leap, or the trot, for the use of it is by its elas- 
ticity to break the jar which is thereby occasioned. The upright 
form is stronger, as the weight is placed more directly over the 
column which bears it, but it allows of less elasticity under the 
sudden shock given by the impetus of the body as it approaches 
the earth, and for this reason is only suited to the slow work of the 
cart-horse, or heavy machiner. In conjunction with the oblique, 
and therefore long blade, is always found a long true arm, which 
is sometimes so extended backward as to place the elbow absolutely 
in the way of the girths, and then perhaps may be considered as 
too long, especially as it throws the weight of the fore-quarter 
much in front of the fore legs, and tends to make the horse pos- 
sessing it somewhat unsafe, unless his action is particularly free. 
This part also should be well clothed with muscles. 

The fore arm or arm, as it is generally called, is not re- 
markable for any great peculiarities, but it is somewhat larger in 
proportion to the cannon bone than in other breeds. 

The knee is broad and deep, from before backwards, and the 
leg below the knee is peculiarly free from that contraction or 
"tying in" which in the cart-horse and allied breeds is so objec- 
tionable, being an element of weakness when the joint is exposed 
to the strains incidental to fast work of any kind. So also a bend- 
ing backwards of the joint called the "calf-knee," common in the 
cart-horse, is condemned in the race-horse for the same reason. 

The bone of the leg both in the fore and hind-quarter is 
small, but of compact substance, while the suspensory ligament 
and back sinew are so large, and stand out so freely, as to appear 
to form quite one-half of the leg. The fetlock joints are clean 
and of good size, the pasterns long and elastic, and the feet though 
email as compared with other breeds, yet large enough for the 
7 



74 THE HORSE. 

weight they have to carry, their horny covering being also tough 
and compact. 

In the "hind-quarter the Eastern horse and his descendants 
excel all others in symmetry and in the length of the various parts 
composing it. Comparing the cart-horse with the subject of the 
present investigation, one is struck with the greatly increased 
length of the thighs of the latter, approaching almost to the pro- 
portions of the greyhound. In the cart-horse, when walking, the 
stifle joint can hardly be seen, while in the race-horse it is brought 
out prominently at every step. This gives the stride necessary for 
pace, and the fast strain of blood known as that of Selim, and his 
brothers Castrel and Rubens, possesses this peculiarity in a marked 
manner, though from the high position of the stifle in them, and 
their straight hocks, many people lose sight of this peculiarity. 
With regard to the hocks of a race-horse, they should be of full 
size, clean, and as a matter of course, free from curbs or spavins. 
They are also generally considered to require very long points, that 
is to say, the projecting lever to which the ham-string is attached 
should be long. From an examination of many race-horses I am 
satisfied that for speed this may be over-done, for though power is 
gained by it, quickness is sacrificed; and a very long point to the 
hock is apt to give long, dull, and dwelling action, entirely oppo- 
site to quick pace, though perhaps telling over a long flat. All 
are agreed that the gaskin or lower thigh must be muscular, and 
both for beauty and effect this is a most important point. In other 
respects, the hind-quarter of the thorough-bred should resemble 
that of any other variety of the species. 

The whole of these points should be in proportion to one an- 
other; that is to say, the formation of the horse should be " true." 
He should not have long well-developed hind-quarters, with an 
upright, weak, or confined fore-quarter. Nor will the converse 
serve, for however well formed the shoulder may be, the horse will 
not go well unless he has a similar formation in the propellers. It 
is of great importance, therefore, that the race-horse should have 
all his various points in true relative development ; and that there 
shall not be the hind-quarter of a long racing-like horse, with the 
thick confined shoulder which would suit a stride less reaching in 
its nature. A remarkable instance of the advantages of such a 
formation is exhibited in Saunterer, whose frame is not charac- 
terized by power or any other special perfection, but being per- 
fectly true in his formation he was one of the best, if not the very 
best, horse of his year, as he proved by his various achievements. 
At page 64 will be found an engraving of him, copied from one of 
the bast portraits I ever saw, by Mr. H. Barraud, which should be 
carefully examined. 



HEIGHT— COLOR— COAT, MANE, AND TAII 75 

HEIGHT. 

In height the race-horse varies from fifteen hands to sixteen 
and a half, or even seventeen hands; hut the general height of our 
best horses is about fifteen hands three inches. Few first-class 
performers have exceeded the height of Surplice, who is sixteen 
hands one inch, as is also another Derby winner, Wild Dayrell. 
Sir Tatton Sykes was fifteen and a half hands ; and between his 
height and that of Surplice may be ranged every great winner for 
the last ten or twelve years. This average, therefore, may fairly be 
laid down as the best height for the race-horse, though it cannot 
be denied that for some small and confined courses — as, for in- 
stance, that of Chester, a smaller horse of little more than fifteen 
hands height has a better chance, as being more capable of turn- 
ing round the constantly recurring angles or bends. 

COLOR. 

The color of the thorough-bred horse is now generally bay, 
brown, or chestnut, one or other of which will occur in ninety- 
nine cases out of a hundred. Gray is not common, but sometimes 
appears, as in the recent case of Chanticleer and many of his stock. 
Black also occasionally makes its appearance, but not more fre- 
quently than gray. Roans, duns, sorrels, &c, are now quite ex- 
ploded, and the above five colors may be said to complete the list 
of those seen on the race-course. Sometimes these colors are 
mixed with a good deal of white, in the shape of blazes on the 
face, or white legs and feet; or even all these marks may occur, 
and the horse may have little more than his body of a brown, bay, 
or chestnut. Most people, however, prefer a self color, with as 
little white as possible ; and nothing but the great success of a 
horse's stock would induce breeders to resort to him if they were 
largely endowed with white. Gray hairs mixed in the coat, as 
in the Venison's, are rather approved of than otherwise ; but they 
do not amount to a roan, in which the gray hairs are equal, or even 
more than that, to those of the other color mixed with thorn. 

COAT, MANE, AND TAIL. 

The texture of the coat and skin is a great proof of high 
breeding, and in the absence of the pedigree would be highly re- 
garded ; but when that is satisfactory it is of no use descending to 
the examination of an inferior proof; and, therefore, except as a 
sign of health, the skin is seldom considered. In all thorough- 
bred horses, however, it is thinner, and the hair more silky than 
in common breeds; and the veins are more apparent under the 
skin, partly from its thinness, but also from their extra size and 
number of branches. This network of veins is of importance in 
allowing the circulation to be carried on during high exertions, 



76 THE HORSE. 

when, if the blood could not accumulate in them, it vould often 
choke the deep vessels of the heart and lungs ; but by collecting 
on the surface great relief is afforded, and the horse is able to 
maintain such a high and long-continued speed as would be im- 
practicable without their help. Hence, these points are not useful 
as a mere mark of breed, but as essential to the very purpose for 
which that breed was established. 

The mane and tail should be silky and not curly, though a 
slight wave is often seen. A decided curl is almost universally a 
mark of degradation, and shows a stain in the pedigree as clearly 
as any sign can do. Here, however, as in other cases, the clear 
tracing of* that all-powerful proof of breeding will upset all reason- 
ing founded upon inferior data. The setting on of the tail is often 
regarded as of great importance, but it is chiefly with reference to 
appearances ; for the horse is not dependent for action or power 
upon this appendage. Nor is strength of dock of any certain value 
as a sign, for I have known some very stout horses with flaccid 
and loosely pendent tails ; but still it may be accepted as a general 
rule, that when the muscles of the tail are weak, those of the rest 
of the body are likely to be so also. 



CHAPTER VI. 
ON THE LOCOMOTIVE ACTION IN THE VARIOUS PACES. 

Natural and Acquired Paces — Distribution of Weight — Attitude 
as siimed in Standing — Mode of Progression — The Walk — 
Trot — Canter — Hand- Gallop — Extended Gallop — The Amble — 
Racking, Pacing, and Running — The Paces of the Manege — 
Leaping. 

NATURAL AND ACQUIRED PACES. 

In A STATE of nature it is probable that the horse only pos- 
sesses two paces, namely, the walk and the gallop; but when he is 
the produce of a domesticated sire and dam, even before he is 
handled, he will generally show a slight tendency to trot, and 
sometimes to amble, rack, or pace, if any of his progenitors have 
been remarkable for these artificial modes of progression. In this 
country, however, it may be assumed that the horse, without being 
taught, walks, trots, and gallops, more or less perfectly, according 
to his formation and temperament. 

DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT. 

Except in the gallop and canter, in the fast trot, and in 
leaping, the weight of the horse is borne by two or more of the legs, 



DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT. 77 

and we shall find that in consequence of the projection forwards 
of the head and neck, the larger moiety is sustained by the fore 
leg (or legs) than by the hind. This can easily be demonstrated 
in the act of standing j but the same rule which applies to that 
position will also serve for any other. 

It is important to the horsemaster to ascertain the circumstances 
which will change these proportions, because he finds practically 
that, in road work, the fore legs wear out faster than the hind, and 
consequently any means by which the weight on them can be re- 
duced will be a gain to him in a pecuniary point of view. M. 
Baucher placed a horse with his fore and hind legs on separate 
weighing machines, and found that a hack mare when left to 
assume her own attitude, weighed on the fore scales 210 kilo- 
grammes, while her hind quarters drew only 174, the total weight 
of the animal being 384 kilogrammes, each of which is equal to 
21bs. 2ozs. 4drs. 16grs. avoirdupois. By depressing the head so 
as to bring the nose to a level with the chest, eight additional 
kilogrammes were added to the front scales, while the raising of 
that part to the height of the withers transferred ten kilogrammes 
to the hindermost scales. Again, by raising and drawing back the 
head, in a similar way to the action of the bearing rein, eight kilo- 
grammes were transferred from the fore to the hind scales, and this 
should not be forgotten in discussing the merits and demerits of 
that much-abused instrument of torture. M. Baucher then mounted 
the mare, when it was found that his weight, which was sixty-four 
kilogrammes, was placed in the proportion of forty-one kilogrammes 
on the fore quarters to twenty- three on the hind. A considerable 
change was of course produced by leaning backward, and by using 
the reins in the manner of the bearing rein, the former transfer- 
ring ten kilogrammes from the fore to the hind quarters, and the 
latter act adding eight more. 

Every practised horseman knows that his horse's fore legs 
will suffer in proportion to the weight which is thrown on them, 
while their relief is an additional source of strain to the hind legs. 
The spavined, and more especially the curby-hocked horse, relieves 
these parts by using his fore legs to carry more than their proper 
proportion of weight, while the animal affected with any painful 
disease of the fore limbs carries almost all the weight of his body 
on his hind legs, which are advanced under him in the most pecu- 
liar manner. The value of artificially changing the natural car- 
riage of the horse, so as to make his hind legs come forward and 
carry more than their own share of weight, is chiefly felt in 
chargers, hacks, and harness horses, while, on the contrary, it is 
injurious to the hunter and the race-horse, whose hind quarters 
bear the greatest strain. 



78 THE HORSE. 

THE ATTITUDE ASSUMED IN STANDING. 

Standing may be considered under two heads, the first com- 
prising the attitude naturally assumed by the horse when inclined 
to rest himself, and the second that forced upon him by education, 
for the sake either of appearances, or to keep him ready to start at 
a moment's notice, as in the cavalry horse. When standing free 
or naturally the horse always rests one leg, and that generally a 
hind one, changing from one to the other as each becomes tired in 
its turn. In the forced attitude all four are on the ground, and 
each supports its share of the superincumbent weight. In either 
case the different joints are kept from bending, by the almost in- 
voluntary combined action of the flexor and extensor muscles, 
which will keep him standing even in sleep, in which respect he 
differs from the human subject. The oblique position of the 
pasterns affords a considerable aid, but without the semi-involun- 
tary support afforded by the muscles, the stifle and hock joints 
behind, and the shoulder and elbow before, would inevitably give 
way. 

MODE OF PROGRESSION. 

In moving forward, whatever the pace may be, the hind 
quarters are the main propellers, and thrust the body forward on 
the fore legs, which serve as imperfect segments of wheels, each in 
its turn making a revolution forwards and backwards through a 
segment of a circle, like a pendulum. This forward motion is 
either effected by one hind leg at a time, as in the walk, trot, 
amble, and rack, or by the two, nearly if not quite synchronously, 
as in the canter, gallop, and leap. In any case, the hind legs (or 
leg) must be drawn forwards under the body, or the body thrust 
backwards upon them, when a contraction of various muscles tends 
to straighten them, and as they are fixed upon the ground, which 
acts as a fulcrum, the body must give way, and thus passes forward 
with a speed and force proportionate to the muscular power exerted. 
In the various paces this mechanical action is differently effected 
in detail, but the principle is the same in all those contained in 
each class to which I have alluded. In the first, the weight is 
borne by the hind and fore quarters between them, while propul- 
sion is effected by one side of the former ; but in the second, it is 
taken at intervals by the fore and hind limbs, the latter propelling 
it with great force, and the former serving as props to it when it 
comes to the ground from the air, and also causing it to rebound 
for another interval of time. 

THE WALK. 

There are two questions involved in this pace which have led 
to discussions without end. Firstly, there is that connected with 
the order of sequence in which the feet are moved. Secondly, that 



THE WALK. 79 

relating to the part of the foot which first touches the ground. 
Of each of these, therefore, I must enter into a particular de- 
scription. 

In examining the order of sequence in -which the feet are 
taken off the ground, it appears to me that a very simple matter 
lias been converted into a complicated one No one with a grain 
of observation can dispute that all the foui legs in this pace move 
separately, and not, as in the trot and amble, by twos of opposite 
or the same sides. Solleysell, however, says that " in a walk the 
horse lifts the near fore leg and far hind leg together" and Perci- 
vall, in quoting this passage, calls him " this true observer of Na- 
ture ;" but, nevertheless, the latter author goes on to disprove the 
correctness of the very passage he has just quoted, though he does 
not seem very clear upon the subject. His description is as fol- 
lows: — " At the mandate of the will to move forward, the fore leg 
is first put in motion, the order of succession in the walk appearing 
to be this : — supposing the right or off fore leg to move first, that is 
no sooner carried off the ground than the left or near hind foot is 
raised, the former being placed upon the ground prior to the latter. 
The two remaining feet move in respect to each other, in the same 
order of time, the left or near fore after the off hind, the right or 
off hind after the near fore j it being observable that as each 
hind foot follows in the line of movement of its corresponding fore 
foot, the latter would very often get struck by the former, did it 
not quit its place immediately prior to the other being placed upon, 
partly or entirely, the same ground." Can anything be more con- 
fused than this jumble of words, which is solely so because it i& 
desired to make the horse begin with a fore foot in preference to a 
hind one. Any one who examines the action of the feet of one 
side only will have no difficulty in perceiving that the hind foot ia 
raised from the ground and moved forward for half its stride before 
the fore foot is disturbed, the same order being observed on the other 
side in succession. Hence, if the horse is started from the stand- 
ing position with all the feet on the ground, it follows that he must 
begin with a hind foot, because with whichever of the sides he 
starts he lifts the hind foot half a pace before the fore foot, as is 
admitted by Percivall himself, for he says, " the latter (fore foot) 
would often get struck by the former (hind foot) did it not quit its 
place immediately prior to the other being placed upon, partly or 
entirely, the same ground." It is very difficult to convey a correct 
idea of this fact by illustration, because the eye has become accus- 
tomed to the erroneous view which is conventionally received by 
artists. However, with the assistance of Mr. Zwecker, who has 
himself studied the subject carefully, I am enabled to present the 
following engraving, which, though apparently awkward and un- 
graceful, is literally correct. Here the near hind foot (1) is just 



80 



THE HORSE. 




2 1 

STARTING FOE THE WALK. 



about to be placed on the ground, on the spot which the near fore 
foot (2) has just left. The off hind foot (3) will follow next in 
succession, and lastly the off fore foot (4) will complete the ca- 
dence. But if each fore foot leaves the ground just as the corres- 
ponding hind foot is finishing its stride, it follows as a matter of 
necessity, if the action is carried on throughout in the same way, 
that in starting from a point of rest the hind foot of one side or 
other is the one to begin the walk. Next follows the fore foot on 
the same side, then the opposite hind foot, and lastly the fore foot 
of the opposite side. The order of progression, be it observed, is 
the same, whether the description commences with the hind or fore 
foot, and the argument is after all of little consequence ; but the 
truth is really, as was observed by Borelli, that the hind foot is the 
first to move when the horse starts into a walk from a state of rest 
in which all four feet are placed as in ordinary standing. There 
may be positions in grazing where the fore foot advances first ; but 
then the pace cannot be considered as the customary walk. 

In the accompanying outline the horse is represented in 
the manner usually accepted by artists, with the near fore foot (2) 
in the air, and apparently leading off. But if, as I have endeavored 
to show, the hind foot must of necessity start first, although this 



THE WALK. 



81 




4 1 

RECEIVED INTERPRETATION OP THE WALK. 



engraving affords to the eye of the observer the most graceful and 
striking position which is taken up in the walk, yet it is not the 
one with which the horse commences that pace. Here the near 
hind foot (1) has already been brought forward and placed on the 
ground, on or near the spot occupied by the fore foot, which is in 
the air; the off hind foot (3) is just about to leave the ground, 
having expended its share of progressive force, and the weight of 
the body is borne by the off fore foot and the near hind one. 
Whenever a fore foot starts first (which, as I have already re- 
marked, may occasionally occur, as, for instance, in grazing, or 
when the weight is unnaturally thrown upon the fore quarters), 
the attitude is most constrained, and the proper sequence, or ca- 
dence, if the animal is forced into a quicker pace, is not fallen into 
without a most grotesque degree of rolling, which conveys to the 
eye a full idea of the forced nature of the pace. Mr. Zwecker 
has endeavored to fix this upon paper in the annexed engraving, 
but though I fully admit that the drawing is correct, I confess that 
I am not satisfied with the result of his labors. However, it may 
serve to convey to my readers the fact which I wish to impress 



82 



THE HORSE. 



upon the mind, viz., that a walk in which either fore leg com- 
mences the cadence is unnatural, or, at all events, exceptional. 

I have thus endeavored to show (and it may, I think, be 
considered as the most simple mode of describing the pace) that, 
as a rule, when the horse is starting from a state of rest into a 
walk he commences with one of the hind feet, the particular one 
chosen being that which at the time bears the least weight of the 
body upon it. Next follows the fore foot of the same side, then the 
opposite hind foot, and lastly the fore foot also of the opposite side. 




4 1 

EXCEPTIONAL MODE OF STARTING. 



"When once it is shown that the hind foot almost touches 
the heel of the foot which precedes it, before the latter is raised, 
of which a moment's observation will satisfy any careful observer, 
the order of sequence becomes clear enough, and, as I set out with 
observing, a subject which is generally made extremely complicated 
becomes as simple as possible. In nine hundred and ninety-nine 
cases out of a thousand the horse starts on the walk with a hind 
foot, and the only exception is when he is, from circumstances, at 
the time in an unnatural attitude. 

The second question in dispute to which I have alluded is 
that involving the part of the foot which first touches the ground 



THE WALK. 83 

in this pace. In this country veterinary writers have generally 
considered that in the sound foot the toe first reaches the ground, 
and undoubtedly Mr. Percivall is no exception, for he says at page 
148 of his Lectures, " To the eye of the observer there is the 
slightest perceptible difference between the toe and heels coming 
to the ground in favor of the former, a difference that need not 
disturb the horseman's good old rule, that a horse in his walk 
should place his foot fairly and flatly down." This theory has, 
as far as I know, never been admitted by practised horsemen, and 
in the year 1855, in describing the perfect hack, at page 526 of 
"British Rural Sports," I wrote as follows : " The walk should be 
safe and pleasant, the fore foot well lifted and deposited on its 
heel." The first veterinary surgeon, however, who combated the 
opinions of his brethren, was Mr. Lupton (a disciple of Mr. 
Gramgee), who early in the year 1858, inserted in the Edinburgh 
Veterinary Review the following " Physiological Reflections on the 
Position assumed by the Fore Foot of the Horse in the varied 
Movements of the Limb" : — 

" 1. The foot of a living horse in a state of rest remains firmly 
on the ground, that is the toe and the heel are on the ground at 
one and the same time ; but if during this position the extensor 
muscles were to contract, then the toe would be raised from the 
ground ; and if, on the other hand, the flexor muscles were to 
contract, then the heel would be raised from the ground. Now, 
during progression, the first movement which takes place is the 
contraction of the flexor muscles, by which (together with the 
muscles of the arm) the foot is raised, the toe being the last 
part of that organ raised from the ground. The foot is now in 
a position to be sent forward, which is brought about by the 
contraction of the extensor muscles ; the foot is then thrown out 
as far as the flexor muscles will admit, and when at the greatest 
allowable point of tension, the heel is brought in apposition with 
the ground. The flexors now in their turn contract, the heel is 
first raised from the ground, and lastly the toe, which brings me 
back to the point I started from. 

" 2. Viewing the leg of a horse as a piece of mechanism (allow- 
ing the leg to be even in a state of anchylosis), and comparing it 
to the spoke of a wheel, during the revolutions of which the pos- 
terior part of the inferior extremity, or, in other words, that part 
which is attached to the tier, comes in contact with the ground 
first ; if in the place of the spoke the above-mentioned leg of the 
horse were there placed, the heel in that case would come in con- 
tact with the ground first, and the toe last. 

"3. As to the anatomy of the foot. 

" The foot is composed of the os pedis, os naviculare, and a 
small portion superiorly of the os corona. Between the alae of the 



84 THE HORSE. 

os pedis we have the frog and the fibrous frog, in fact, a beautiful 
elastic cushion ; and postero-laterally the lateral cartilages, readily 
yielding on the application of pressure. Seeing this arrangement, 
I naturally seek to find the cause of its existence, and I suggest 
that it is there in order, by coming in contact with the ground, 
first to break the concussive effect, likely, if being hard and un- 
yielding as the formation at the toe, to be productive of much cost 
to the animal frame. 

" 4. The progress of action is from the heel to the toe. For 
example, man, during progression, puts his heel to the ground 
first; the ox also places his heels similarly on the ground first, and 
dogs bring their pads in contact with the ground first; does it not, 
then, seem undeniable, when reasoning by analogy, that the horse 
similarly brings his heels to the ground first ? 

"During progression, the body moves forward; during which 
movement the toe, as evident to every observer, leaves the ground 
last, that is, when the flexors are contracting. If such be the case, 
then, for the toe to come in contact with the ground first, as some 
affirm, and the heel last, is a retrograde and impossible movement. 

" Three principal impressions are made on the foot during pro- 
gression, namely: 

" 1. On the heel, when great expansion and yielding takes place, 
owing to the pressure on the frog, which is forced upwards, causing 
the ultimate expansion of the walls of the hoof, &c. 

" 2. On the middle part of the foot, when the bones bear the 
weight of the body. The flexors and extensors being, for the in- 
stant, in a state of quietude, i. e. neither of them are extending or 
contracting. 

" 3. On the toe, when the animal gives a push, by which an 
impetus is given to send the body forwards. 

" The foot comes on the ground nearly flat, I admit, but the 
heel is for an instant on the ground before the toe. 

" I humbly assert, in conclusion, that the progress of action is 
from the heel to the toe, and not from the toe to the heel." 

It appears to me that argument is here thrown away, for as it 
is admitted by both sides that the toe and heel are each in certain 
cases placed on the ground first, it is manifest that either may be 
in all. Observation, therefore, and not theoretical argument, must 
determine under what circumstances the foot is deposited with its 
toe on the ground, and vice versa. Mr. Spooner, and nearly the 
whole of the London school, say that the toe touches first in all 
cases but in the disease known as laminitis; Mr. Lupton, Mr. 
Gamgee, and the Edinburgh new school, assert, on the contrary, 
that, as a rule, the heel touches the ground a shade the first. Their 
assertions reach to all paces; but here I think a mistake is com- 
mitted, for I am confident that in trotting, the toe touches tha 



THE WALK. 85 

ground slightly before the heel in a large proportion of cases. In 
the walk I am quite satisfied that Mr. Lupton and his followers 
are right, and that the heel is presented to the ground in all good 
walkers, but so slightly first as to escape the notice of careless 
observers. If the toe is not raised it is apt to tip the inequalities 
of the ground, and we have that disagreeable sensation of inse- 
curity in the walk which a bad hack invariably gives. Many 
horses go very close to the ground, but if the extensors turn the 
toe well up in bringing the leg forward, however closely to the 
ground it is carried, it is safely deposited on it. On the contrary, 
a high action, with the heel raised, is never safe, either on the 
walk or the trot. It is quite contrary to the experience of horse- 
men out of the veterinary profession to assert that either toe-action 
or heel-action is invariably met with in sound horses, and I believe 
the facts to be as I have stated them. That in laminitis the toe 
is raised in an exaggerated form no one will deny, but the extent 
is far greater than any one supposes to exist in a healthy foot. 
I have possessed one or two horses which, though perfectly sound, 
would wear out the heels of their shoes before their toes, and one 
of them was a high-stepping mare with remarkably good feet. Now 
the friction in all cases after the foot is put down must be greater 
on the toe than the heel, because it scrapes the ground, more or 
less, as it leaves it. When, therefore, the heel is worn out first, it 
proves that this part touches the ground first, though the converse 
does not hold good, for the reason which I have given. 

Having discussed these two questions, I come now to examine 
what is done in each movement of the legs, independently of the 
order of their going, and of the above toe and heel controversy, 
and shall proceed to consider in what the good walk differs from 
the bad. 

Writers on the horse divide each movement of the leg into 
three acts, consisting of the lift, the swing, and the grounding. 
In the first act, the foot is raised; in the second, it is thrust for- 
ward ; and in the third, it is firmly but lightly deposited on the 
grouud. But these may severally be well performed, and yet the 
horse be a bad walker, because his body is not well balanced on 
the legs in contact with the ground while the other or others are 
moving. A good walker should take short quick steps, with his 
hind legs well tinder him, and then he will be able to plant his fore 
feet firmly but lightly on the ground in succession. If his stride is 
too long, his hind legs cannot be always well under him, because they 
must be wide apart when both are on the ground ; and the body can- 
not then be balanced securely, because there is too long an interval 
elapsing while the one hind leg is passing the other. Hence, in such 
a horse, there is a waddling movement from side to side, so often 
seen in the thorough-bred horse, whose full tail shows it very mani- 



86 THE HORSE. 

festly, but wLose rider feels the inconvenience much more clearly 
than it is seen by the uninterested looker-on. The clever hack, on 
the contrary, moves forward without his body deviating a hair's 
breadth from the line in which it is progressing, neither undulating 
to the right and left nor up and down. The rider of a first-rate 
hack should be able to carry a full glass of wine in his hand for 
any distance without spilling a drop ; and if the action on the walk 
is not smooth enough for this, it cannot be considered as approach- 
ing to perfection. Many horses step short and quick, and yet do 
not walk well, because their shoulders have not liberty enough to 
thrust their arms forward during the act of swinging the leg; and 
hence the pace is slow, for the foot is put down very near to the 
spot from which it was lifted. In choosing a good walker, there- 
fore, see that his feet are lifted smartly, that they are well thrust 
forward, and placed firmly but lightly on the ground. Look at 
him well from behind, and observe whether he hits himself on the 
fetlock joints as one foot passes the other; and at the same time 
examine whether, as he lifts his fore feet, he turns them out, or 
" dishes," which is a very serious fault, in consequence of the loss 
of time which it occasions. In most horses the hind foot oversteps 
the place from which the corresponding fore foot has been removed ; 
but in a good hack this should not exceed an inch, or the pace will 
not be smooth and smart, as I have already observed. Very few 
walkers actually touch one foot with the other, as in the trot, nor 
do they overreach with violence so as to injure their heels ; the 
only objection, therefore, is to the length of stride, which I have 
shown to produce an uneasy effect upon the rider. But whenever 
the horse appears to move as if his fore feet are in the way of the 
hind, he will rarely, even with the best tuition, become a pleasant 
and safe hack. 

The rate of walking is very seldom quite five miles an 
hour, though horses are to be found which will accomplish the 
distance in that time, or even less. Many will do a mile in twelve 
minutes and a half; but to get beyond this is a very difficult task. 
Indeed, there are few horses which in their walk will bear pressing 
to the utmost speed of which they are capable, without breaking. 
It may, I think, be assumed, that the average pace of good walkers 
is about four miles and a half to four miles and three-quarters 
per hour. 

THE TROT. 

This pace may be described under three heads, namely, the jog 
trot, the true trot, and the flying trot. In all three the diagonal 
limbs move exactly together, but in the first the time during which 
each foot is on the ground is much greater than that in which it 
is in the air. In the second the contrary is the case; while, in the 
third, the horse is carried completely off his legs for a considerable 



THE TROT. 87 

space of time, between the several bounds which are made by the 
two feet of opposite sides as they touch the ground in succession. 
The jog trot seems to come naturally to the horse when he is first 
mounted ; and, as long as he is fresh and fiery, the colt will main- 
tain this pace, unless he is permitted to exceed it. He will prefer 
it to the walk for a long time ; and it is only by good hands, com- 
bined with patience, that a spirited colt can be made to walk ; for 
he can generally jog quite as slowly, and often much more so. 
Farmers are very apt to accustom their young horses to the jog 
trot, because they find by experience that it does not injure their 
legs or feet; but to a rider unaccustomed to this pace it is by no 
means an easy one. In the true trot, as exemplified below, the 
feet are on the ground a comparatively short space of time, the 
body being carried so rapidly forward that they are moved off 
almost as soon as they are deposited on it. By examining this out- 
line, it will be seen that the position of the fore and hind limbs of 
the two opposite sides exactly corresponds, and this will be the 
case, whatever may be the period of the action in which the ob- 
servation is made. As in the walk, each step may be divided into 
three acts ; but I see no advantage in thus attempting to separate 
or analyze what must be considered in its totality, if it is to be re- 
garded with any advantage to the observer. In the flying trot, 
which is well shown in the portrait of Flora Temple, at page 489, 
all the legs are for a very short period of time off the ground, as is 
there delineated, but still there is always an exact correspondence 
between the position of the fore and hind legs of opposite sides. 
The chief difference between these three varieties of the trot con- 
sists in the rapidity of the propulsion which is going on. This in 
the first is very slight; and the more elastic the fetlock joints, the 
better and softer is this pace. The feet are raised, and the legs 
are rounded or bent ; but the body is not thrust forward, nor are 
the shoulders moved in the same direction to any appreciable ex- 
tent. The consequence is, that the feet are deposited again very 
close to the spot from which they are taken, and the pace is as 
slow as the walk. In the true trot, if it is well performed, the 
hind legs must be moved as rapidly as, and with more force than, 
the fore legs, because they have more work to do in propelling the 
body, the latter having only to sustain it during the operation. 
Good judges, therefore, regard the hind action as of even more 
importance than that of the knees and shoulders; for if the former 
do not drive the body well forward, good pace cannot be obtained, 
nor will it be easy and rhythmical. In this kind of trot elastic 
fetlocks are fatal to speed, as they prevent the instantaneous effect 
upon the body of the muscular contractions of the hind limbs, and 
cause the action to be dwelling and slow. Very fast trotters are, 
therefore, rough in their " feel" to the rider, and are not suited 



THE HORSE. 




ACTION IN THE TRUE TROT. 



for the purposes of pleasure. Indeed, no one would mount one of 
them from choice ; but when they possess good mouths, they are 
pleasant enough to drive. In examining trotting action, regard 
should be paid to the plane through which each limb passes, for if 
this is not parallel with that of the median line of the body the 
action is not true and smooth, and there is great risk of one limb 
cutting the other. This is best seen by watching the trot from 
behind as well as before, which gives an opportunity of investi- 
gating the movements of both pairs of limbs. Every horse should 
be so made that, when he stands, his fore canna bones should be 
quite parallel ; but in order to be so, as they stand closer together 
than his elbows, they must form a slight angle with the arm at the 
knee ; and hence, as this part is bent, there is always a slight ten- 
dency to turn out the foot, the exaggerated form of which is called 
" dishing." The observer will, therefore, do well to ascertain the 
extent to which this should be carried, or he will be apt to con- 
demn a perfect goer as a "disher," from finding that he turns out 
his toes in bending the knee, though only in the trifling degree 
ordained by nature. If, in bending by the hand the fore foot to 
the elbow, the inner heel of the shoe is in contact with the outside 
of the arm, there will not be too much turning out of the foot, and 



THE TROT— THE CANTER. 89 

the purchaser need not be afraid of this defect existing in the 
horse he is examining. Provided the fetlocks and canna-bones are 
not actually touched or "hit" in trotting, the fore-legs cannot be 
moved too closely together ; but if they pass very near to one an- 
other in a fat dealer's horse, it may be suspected that when he ia 
reduced in flesh to a proper working condition, boots will be neces- 
sary. A practised eye is required to judge of this correctly, and, 
if there is any doubt, one had better be consulted. 

The Norfolk trotter of the present day has very perfect action, 
intermediate between the pointed and flying trot of the American 
horse, and the round high knee-action of the London park-horse. 
Even he, however, is not nearly so pleasant to ride as the tho- 
rough-bred, when the latter can trot at all ; but many of this breed 
have been so long accustomed to the gallop, that their trot is a 
most imperfect pace. When they do perform it properly, it gives 
a most delightful feel, and no rider for pleasure, if money is at his 
command, should " throw his leg" over any but a thorough-bred, 
or one nearly pure in blood. 

THE CANTER. 

The canter is a thoroughly artificial pace, at first extremely 
tiring to the horse, and generally only to be produced in him by 
the restraint of a powerful bit, which compels him to throw a great 
part of his weight on his haunches. It is very difficult to describe 
or define this pace, either in a pen-and-ink sketch or by the aid of 
the painter. Indeed it is often quite a matter of opinion to decide 
whether a horse is cantering or galloping. Many writers, and 
among them Mr. Blaine, have attempted to draw a distinction, by 
confining the canter to the pace which is executed without the feet 
ever leaving the ground altogether ; but this definition is not gene- 
rally admitted and followed, and many a horse whose canter would be 
readily allowed by all horsemen to be true, may be seen to leave the 
ground entirely for a certain interval of time, however small it may be. 
There is so great a variety in the modes adopted by different horses 
for performing the canter, that no single description will suffice, 
nor indeed is it easy, as I before observed, to define any one of 
them. Sometimes the carriage is extremely elegant, the hind legs 
well under the body, and all moving like clockwork, with the head 
bent on the neck, and the mouth playing lightly on the bit. 
When such a pace is performed with the right leg leading, the 
canter is exactly adapted for the female seat, in which the right 
shoulder is of necessity slightly advanced, and it is therefore the 
object of the breaker to obtain it. But it is only in those horses 
which combine a free use of their limbs with fine temper and good 
mouths, that such a pace can be developed, and if any one of these 
qualities is deficient it is useless to attempt to teach them. On 



90 



THE HORSE. 



the other hand, the pony or galloway will often canter without 
throwing any extra weight on his hind legs, with a loose rein and 
extended neck. This kind of pace may be detected by the ear on. 
a turnpike road, by the quick pat-ter-ring sound which is evolved. 
It is extremely easy to the horseman, but is not so well adapted to 
female equestrianism, as it jerks the body in an ungraceful manner. 
The true canter, as adapted for ladies, is indicated below, though 




THE CANTER. 



it is so difficult to represent, that it is not so clearly done as might 
be wished. When the off leg leads off, the near one has to bear 
more than its share of work, and hence, unless a change is occa- 
sionally made, the fetlock joint of that leg is almost sure to suffer. 
Ladies should therefore either trot for a part of their daily rides, 
or teach themselves and their horses to change the lead from that 
with the off leg to that with the near. 

THE HAND GALLOP. 

Between the canter and the true gallop there intervenes a 
pace which may be easily confounded with either, unless Mr. 
Blaine's definition of the canter is accepted, when the hand gallop 



THE EXTENDED GALLOP. 



91 



can easily be distinguished from it. This pace is merely a slow 
and measured gallop, in which for a very short period all the legs 
leave the ground, but in which the propulsion is steadily given, 
and not with those snatches or jerks which are necessary to de- 
velop the high speed of the extended gallop. The body also is 
not nearer the ground than in the act of standing, and this may be 
considered as one of the best distinctions between the hand gallop 
and the extended stride of the faster pace. The French writers 
distinguish between the two by asserting that in the hand gallop 
there are three beats, while in the flying gallop two only are per- 
formed ; but in practice there is no such variation. 

THE EXTENDED GALLOP. 

According to most observers, this pace is a succession of 
leaps, smoothly and rhythmically performed, but Mr. Percivall has 
shown that there is a considerable difference between the two ac- 
tions. He says in his lectures, — " In galloping a horse, in hunt- 




RECEIVEB INTERPRETATION OF THE GALLOP. 



ing, for example, the rider needs no person to tell him of the mo- 
ment when his horse is taking a leap, however trifling it may be ; 
his own sensations inform him of every grip or furrow his horse 
leaps in his course, and should he have occasion to make a succes- 
sion of such jumps, the rider's sensations in his saddle are of a 
very different — very uneasy — kind, compared to such as he expe- 
riences during the act of galloping. This arises from two causes : 
from the spring or movement of the body necessary to produce the 
leap being more forcible or sudden than that required for the gallop, 
and from the latter being cVeated and continued rather by the sue- 



92 THE HORSE. 

cessive action of the two hind feet at one moment, and of that of 
the two fore feet at the next moment, than from the synchronous 
efforts of either biped, as happens in the leap. The two great 
propellers of the animal machine — the hind feet — are in the leap 
required to act simultaneously, to make one grand propulsory 
effort; not so in the gallop, that being a movement requiring main- 
taining, not by synchronous exhausting efforts of the hind feet, 
but in swift succession, first by one, then by the other • and the 
same as regards the office performed by the fore limbs, which latter 
probably amounts to little more in effect than the sustentation of 
the fore parts of the body. The vault into the air required for 
the leap is only to be effected by extraordinary subitaneous effort, 
but the stride of the gallop, requiring frequent repetition, does 
not exact this effort — amounts, in fact, to no more than a sort of 
lift from the ground, multiplied into a reiteration of forcible bear- 
ings forward, maintaining, increasing, or diminishing the momen- 
tum of speed, effectuated by throwing the hind feet as far forward 
underneath the body as possible, plunging them one after the other 
with inappreciable rapidity into the earth, and thus by two strenuous 
thrusts against the ground, one in aid of the other, working the ani- 
mal machine in its fleet — almost flying — course. In the gallop as in 
the trot, no sooner is a certain momentum acquired, than by each 
successive propulsion of the hind feet the body is sprung or lifted 
off the ground, flying as it appears in the air, and the greater the 
speed, the more this volitation becomes apparent. Hence the ap- 
pellation given to the pace, manifestly the utmost speed, of flying 
gallop. Even this, however, according to my judgment, is an 
action different from leaping. When a horse leaps or jumps in his 
gallop, — which he will do sometimes when he is beany and has but 
just emerged out of his stable, — he is said to buck, because his 
action then resembles that of the deer, in whom the gallop might 
with a great deal more propriety be called a succession of" leaps : 
even the deer, however, cannot continue this bucking action after 
being driven into his speed, or in a state of fatigue, showing that in 
him it is to be regarded rather as a gambol than as his proper work- 
ing onward action. And that the hind and fore feet in pairs are 
not grounded synchronously, I think admits of a demonstration in 
two ways : first, by the position they assume one in advance of the 
other in the gallop ; secondly, by the clatter the steps of a horse 
in the gallop are known to make upon hard or resonant ground, 
and which may be heard either by a spectator or by the rider him- 
self. Whence we probably derive the phrase, a rattling gallop." 

But while I agree with Mr. Percivall that there is a difference 
between the act of leaping and galloping, as performed by the 
horse, I do not quite see that it is an abuse of terms to describe 
the gallop as a " succession of leaps" — that they are not precisely 



THE GALLOP 93 

similar to those made in overcoming an obstacle does not necessa- 
rily make them other than leaps. The word leap is not defined in 
our dictionaries so as to confine its meaning beyond that appertain- 
ing to its synonym, spring, and probably even Mr. Percivall would 
not deny that in the gallop, the horse, as well as the deer, makes 
a succession of springs. The dispute is founded, as is so often the 
case, upon a want of agreement as to the meaning of a word, and 
not on a difference of opinion as the essence of the act itself. 
Blaine, Percivall, and every careful observer of the horse in action, 
well know that in the act of galloping the horse leaves the print 
of his hind feet one in advance of the other, while in leaping he 
generally, in fact almost invariably, makes them opposite one 
another. There is a contradiction apparent in Percivall's remarks 
about the deer's gallop, which in one place he observes "might 
with a great deal more propriety be called a succession of leaps," 
while in the next sentence he says that this " bucking action" in 
the deer "is to be regarded rather as a gambol than as his proper 
working onward action." The deer's gallop very closely resembles 
that of the horse, but as he is a stronger and higher leaper, espe- 
cially in proportion to his size, he can continue those bounds with 
the hind legs opposite each other much longer and with more ad- 
vantage than the horse, who seldom makes more than two or three 
in succession. 

To represent THE GALLOP pictorially in a perfectly correct 
manner is almost impossible. At all events it has never yet been 
accomplished, the ordinary and received interpretation being alto- 
gether erroneous. When carefully watched, the horse in full 
gallop will be seen to extend himself very much, but not nearly to 
the length which is assigned to him by artists. To give the idea 
of high speed the hind legs are thrust backward and the fore legs 
forward in a most unnatural position, which if it could be assumed 
in reality would inevitably lead to a fall, and most probably to a 
broken back. It is somewhat difficult to obtain a good view of a 
horse at his best pace, without watching him through a race-glass 
at a distance of a quarter of a mile at least, for if the eye is nearer 
to him than this the passage of the body by it is so quick that no 
analysis can be made of the position of the several parts. But at 
the above distance it may be readily seen that the horse never as- 
sumes the attitude in which he is generally represented, of which 
an example is given at the beginning of this article. When the 
hind legs are thrust backwards, the fore feet are raised and more or 
less curled up under the knees, as it is manifest must be the case 
to enable them to be brought forward without raising the body 
from the ground. In the next act, as the hind feet are brought 
under the body the fore legs are thrust straight before it ; and so 
whichever period is chosen for the representation, the complete 



94 



THE HORSE. 



extension so generally adopted must be inaccurate. It may be said 
that this is meant to represent the moment when all the feet are in 
the air, and theoretically it is possible that there may be a time 
when all the feet are extended; because, as in the fast gallop the 
stride is twenty-four feet long, while the horse only measures six- 
teen from foot to foot, it follows that he must pass through eight 
feet without touching the ground, and during that time, as of ne- 
cessity his legs must move faster than his body, the fore legs may 
change their position from the curled up one described above to 
the extended one represented by all painters as proper to the gal- 
lop. Observation alone can therefore settle this question ; but, as 
I before remarked, a race-glass at a distance of a quarter of a mile 
enables a careful observer to satisfy himself that our received 
ideas of the extended gallop are incorrect. Nevertheless, if a 
proper interpretation is given, the eye at once rebels, and on ex- 




CORRECT VIEW OF TEE GALLOP. 



amination of such a figure as we here give, founded on perfectly 
correct principles, the mind refuses its assent to the idea of great 
pace, which is that which is desired to be given. These facts are 
well known to artists, and some of them, including the celebrated 
Leech, have tried the experiment of drawing the galloping horse 
properly ; but their entire want of success shows the impossibility 
of the performance. 

As in the canter so in the gallop a lead is always made of one 
leg before the other, and as one tires the other changes place with 
it. A good, true, and strong galloper will seldom require this re- 
lief, but a weak one, especially if not completely broken, will effect 



THE AMBLE— RACKING, ETC. 95 

the change continually. Sometimes this causes the loss of a race, 
for it cannot be done without interfering with the action, and con- 
sequently with the pace. A good horseman prefers that his horse 
should not confine himself to one lead, but he does not like him to 
change after he has once started, for the above reason. The right 
leg in front is more easy even to the male rider than the left, but 
not materially so, and except for female equestrianism no horse 
hould be taught to lead invariably with the right leg either in the 
gallop or canter. In the change the truth or harmony of action is 
often disturbed, and the horse jerks himself and his rider in a 
disagreeable manner, which is another reason why the change of 
legs should not be encouraged. 

There is a great variation in the length of the stride, and 
in the rounding or bending upwards of the foot under the knee. 
Sometimes even in a fast gallop the distance between the prints of 
the same feet will be no more than sixteen feet, while in others it 
will measure twenty-four, twenty-five, or even twenty-six feet. 
The first is too short for any race-horse ; but a moderately short 
stride enables the horse to get off with a quicker start, and to 
ascend and descend hills better than a very long one. Where, 
however, a distance of level ground is to be covered a long stride 
tells, and a horse possessing it has a great advantage over one 
whose gallop is short, however quick and smart it may be. For 
this long stride there must be length of limbs, especially of the 
two bones meeting at the stifle joint; and this is the perfection of 
the form of the race-horse, as I have already described at page 73. 

THE AMBLE. 

Like the trot, this pace is performed by two legs alternately 
moving in exact correspondence with each other. Instead, how- 
ever, of these being of opposite sides, they are of the same side, 
and one lateral half of the body is moved forward while the weight 
of the whole is supported on the other. The pace is altogether 
unnatural to the wild horse, but in some domestic breeds it has 
become naturalized, and the foal will in them display the amble 
long before it is taught anything by the hand of man. In the 
cameleopard the amble is the only kind of progression, whethei 
the animal goes slowly or fast ; and in dogs, especially in pointers, 
greyhounds, and Newfoundlands, this pace is occasionally displayed 
Formerly an ambling palfrey was in great request for ladies' use, 
but in the present day the pace is not regarded with favor by an} 
of the inhabitants of the British Isles. 

RACKING, OR PACING, AND RUNNING. 

Tn this country no other paces are recognised than the fivs 
which I have already described, but in America a fast kind of 



96 THE HORSE. 

amble is distinguished by the name of racking, or pacing. It is 
performed by two legs of the same side acting synchronously as in 
the amble, but they are moved with much more rapidity, and the 
result is a speed greater than that of the fastest trot, by several 
seconds in the mile. This will be apparent on consulting the re- 
cord of the best performances of the American horses, at pp. 504-6, 
where Pocahontas, a pacer, is set down as doing a mile in 2 minutes 
17£ seconds, while their fastest mile trot on record occupied 2 
minutes 19 f seconds. Running is an indescribable kind of trot, 
in which the limbs do not move regularly together, but each seems 
to act independently as in the walk. The consequence is that it is 
impossible for the rider of a running horse to rise in his stirrups, 
but the action being very easy there is no occasion for this relief. 
It is not capable of being performed at a slow rate, and it is gene- 
rally produced among horses which are ridden without a saddle, 
and in which as a consequence the riders do not relieve themselves 
and their horses by rising in it. 

THE PACES OF THE MANEGE. 

In the military schools of riding a variety of paces are 
taught even in the present day, but the old riding masters adopted 
many more, which are now discontinued. Some of them are in- 
tended to enable the soldier to use his sword or spear with double 
advantage, as the volte and semi-volte, but the majority of those 
still retained are for the purpose of carrying out the combined evo- 
lutions necessary to cavalry. The " passage," for instance, is a 
side movement, that enables a number of horses to be changed 
from close to open order, which would be a difficult task to per- 
form with horses not taught to perform it. Backing is likewise 
necessary for similar purposes ; but this should always be taught 
to every horse, whether used by the military or by civilians. A 
minute description, however, of the several paces of the manege 
would occupy too much space here, and is only useful to the cavalry 
soldier, who will learn their nature much better from practical in- 
struction by the riding-master of his regiment. 

LEAPING, OR JUMPING. 

The description of this act given by Mr. Percivall is most 
unsatisfactory. He says, " The leap is either a sudden spring into 
the air, in which the feet quit the ground simultaneously, or else 
it is an act compounded of an imperfect rear and kick in quick or 
slow succession, according to the manner in which it is performed. 
The leap can hardly be regarded as an act of progression ; com- 
monly it being in a forward direction, undoubtedly progress is 
made by it, but it is possible for it to amount to no more than a 
jump or a bound off, and upon the same ground, as is the case 



LEAPING, OR JUMPING. 97 

when a horse is said to 'buck' in his leaping, that is, to come 
down upon or near to the spot from which he arose." Now in 
this sentence, short as it is, I maintain that several misstatements 
are made; as I shall proceed to show. To begin with the latter 
part. If a horse is properly said to "buck" in his leaping, it is 
evident that the two cannot be synonymous, or there would be no 
occasion for the distinction, and therefore if "bucking" means 
jumping up and coming down on the same ground, which is the 
general acceptation of the term, leaping cannot mean the same, 
which it is said sometimes to do by Mr. Percivall in the quotation 
which I have adduced. When a horse simply "bucks" in his 
play he does not leap forward, but springs into the air, and even 
then he generally makes some progression. When he "bucks" 
in his leaps, he must progress, because he begins on one side of 
the obstacle to be overcome, and finishes on the other. It is not 
meant that he then acts exactly as he does in play, or when viciously 
trying to dislodge his rider, but that his action resembles to a con- 
siderable extent this true bucking, in which little or no progres- 
sion is made. I therefore hold that Percivall's exception is not 
founded in truth ; and that the act of leaping necessarily implies 
progression, for without it the perpendicular spring into the air is 
properly distinguished by the term bucking, as admitted by Perci- 
vall himself. Then, turning back to the first sentence, I think 
every careful observer will admit that in the leap, whatever may 
be its kind, the feet do not quit the ground simultaneously. Mani- 
festly in the standing or slow leap the fore feet rise first, unless 
the horse "bucks," when all rise almost but not quite at the same 
moment. A careful examination of the mechanism of the horse 
will show that this must be the case, because, as the fore legs are 
straight to the last, there is no spring in them, and if they were 
not first raised by the action of the loins and haunches, as in rear- 
ing, they would remain on the ground until they were dragged by 
the hind quarters turning a somerset over them. In the human 
body, as the legs are ordinarily kept straight, they must be bent 
before a spring can be taken, for even the angular ankle joint re- 
quires a bent knee to enable it to act upon the toes. In the horse 
the fore leg resembles that of man in this respect, but the hind 
leg in the standing position is bent at the stifle and hock, and is 
then exactly like a man's when he is prepared to take a standing 
jump. As a consequence of this the fore quarter of the horse 
when he is standing must be raised by the hind, since it has no 
angles to give a spring with, and if so it must leave the ground 
first, as I have already shown. The flying leap may readily be 
seen to be accomplished by the fore feet leaving the ground first, 
and no one I believe disputes this, so that it is unnecessary to di* 
cuss it. 

9 G 



98 THE HORSE. 

It may, therefore, I think, be asserted with truth that the leap 
is always made by the horse raising his fore quarter, and then sud- 
denly and powerfully straightening his hind limbs; with the ground 
as a fulcrum he propels his whole body forwards, and more or less 
upwards, according to the height of the obstacle to be overcome. 
In descending from the height to which the whole body has been 
raised, there is a considerable variation in the relative periods of 
time at which the fore and hind feet touch the ground. Some- 
times the fore feet come down almost perpendicularly, and so far 
before the hind that they have to bear the whole force of the 
united momentum and gravity before the hind ones reach the 
ground, and then a very slight mistake will occasion a fall. At 
others they come down " all fours," that is, all the feet touching 
the ground at the same moment, occasioning a great shock both to 
horse and rider, and also a considerable loss of time in getting 
away again into the stride. In the best style the horse touches 
ground with his fore feet first, but being well extended they are 
in a position to do no more than act as a spring to break the shock, 
and the hind legs coming down immediately afterwards bear nearly 
the whole force of momentum and gravity, which the fore legs are 
unable to do safely, as I have already shown. 

Mr. Percivall is also in error as to the width of ground which 
horses have been known to clear ; for he gives twenty-two feet as 
an extraordinary effort in a steeplechase, whereas such a distance 
is covered by any hurdle-jumper in ordinary practice, as I have 
twenty times proved by careful measurement. I have myself seen 
thirty-two and thirty-three feet cleared by steeplechasers, and it 
is well known that Proceed and Chandler covered respectively 
thirty-seven and thirty-nine feet in two separate steeplechases. So 
a jump six feet in height is a very great performance, being eight 
inches higher than the withers of a horse of sixteen hands. Some- 
thing more than this has however been done, and I myself once 
saw a horse clear a stone wall two or three inches above six feet 
high, with the slightest possible touch of one stone with a hind 
foot, but sufficient to dislodge it. Very few horses, however, can 
be relied on to cover more than twenty-five feet in width, and four 
feet, or four feet six inches in height, and an average hunter will 
not often do so much, especially if at all tired by a long run, or if 
without the excitement attendant on the chase. 



THEORI OF GENERATION. 99 

CHAPTER VII. 
THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING APPLICABLE TO THE 60RSE. 

Theory of Generation — In-and-in Breeding — Out-Crossing , Advan- 
tages and Disadvantages of each Plan — Causes of a "Hit" — 
Importance of Health and Soundness in both Sire and Dam — 
Best Age to Breed from — Influence of Sire and Dam respectively — 
Choice of Sire and Dam — The Kind of Horse most likely to be 
Projitable to the Breeder — Concluding Remarks on Breeding. 

THEORY OF GENERATION. 

The importance of understanding the principles upon which 
the breeding of the horse should be conducted is so great that 
every one who superintends a stud, however small, should study 
them carefully. To do this with advantage, he must investigate 
the changes which take place after the union between the sexes, 
and must endeavor to ascertain the influence which the sire and 
dam respectively exert upon their offspring. 

In the year 1855, while engaged in preparing the article on 
the breeding of the horse in "British Rural Sports," I carefully 
drew up the following epitome of the laws which govern the gene- 
ration of the mammalia. Since then, the subject has constantly 
been before me ; but, in spite of the numerous investigations car- 
ried on by other observers, I have seen no reason to modify, in any 
material degree, what I then wrote ; and I shall, therefore, to pre- 
vent confusion, insert it entire, what slight additions may be neces- 
sary being included within parentheses. 

1. The union of the sexes is, in all the higher animals, neces- 
sary for reproduction ; the male and female each taking their re- 
spective share. 

2. The office of the Male is to secrete the semen in the 
testes, and emit it into the uterus of the female (in or near which 
organ), it comes in contact with the ovum of the female — which 
remains sterile without it. 

3. The Female forms the ovum in the ovary, and at regular 
times, varying in different animals, this descends into the uterus, 
for the purpose of fructification, on receiving the stimulus and ad- 
dition of the sperm-cell of the semen. 

4. The Semen consists of two portions — the spermatozoa, which 
have an automatic power of moving from place to place, by which 
quality it is believed that the semen is carried to the ovum ; and 
the sperm-cells, which are intended to co-operate with the (/erra- 
cell of the ovum in forming the embryo. 

5. The Ovum consists of the germ-cell, intended to form part 



100 THE HORSE. 

of the embryo, — and of the yolk, which nourishes both, until the 
vessels of the mother take upon themselves the task ; or, in ovip- 
arous animals, till hatching takes place, and external food is to be 
obtained. The ovum is carried down by the contractile power of 
the fallopian tubes from the ovary to the uterus, and hence it does 
not require automatic particles like the semen. 

6. The Embryo, or young animal, is the result of the contact 
of the semen with the ovum, immediately after which the sperm- 
cell of the former is absorbed into the germ-cell of the latter. Upon 
this a tendency to increase or " grow" is established and supported 
at first, by the nutriment contained in the yolk of the ovum, until 
the embryo has attached itself to the walls of the uterus, from 
which it afterwards absorbs its nourishment by the intervention 
of the placenta. 

7. As the Male and Female each furnish their quota to the 
formation of the embryo, it is reasonable to expect that each shall 
be represented in it, which is found to be the case in nature ; but 
as the food of the embryo entirely depends upon the mother, it may 
be expected that the health of the offspring and its constitutional 
powers will be more in accordance with her state than with that 
of the father ; yet since the sire furnishes one-half of the original 
germ, it is not surprising that in external and general character 
there is retained a, facsimile, to a certain extent, of him. 

8. The Ovum op Mammalia differs from that of birds chiefly 
in the greater size of the yolk of the latter, because in them this 
body is intended to support the growth of the embryo from the 
time of the full formation of the egg until the period of hatching. 
On the other hand, in mammalia the placenta conveys nourish- 
ment from the internal surface of the uterus to the embryo during 
the whole time which elapses between the entrance of the ovum 
into the uterus and its birth. This period embraces nearly the 
whole of the interval between conception and birth, and is called 
utero-gestation. 

9. In all the Mammalia there is a Periodical "Heat," 
marked by certain discharges in the female, and sometimes by other 
remarkable symptoms in the male (as in the rutting of the deer). 
In the former it is accompanied in all healthy subjects by the de- 
scent of an ovum or ova into the uterus ; and in both there is a 
strong desire for sexual intercourse, which never takes place at 
other times in them (with the single exception of the genus Di- 
mana). 

10. The Semen retains its fructifying power for some days, if it 
is contained within the walls of the uterus or vagina, but soon ceases 
to be fruitful if kept in any other vessel. Hence, although the 
latter part of the time of heat is the best for the union of the sexes, 
because then the ovum is ready for the contact with the semen, 



THEORY OF GENERATION. 101 

yet if the semeu reaches the uterus first, it will still cause a fruit- 
ful impregnation, because it remains there (or in the fallopian 
tubes) uninjured until the descent of the ovum. 

11. The Influence of the Male upon the embryo is partly 
dependent upon the fact, that he furnishes a portion of its sub- 
stance in the shape of the sperm-cell, but also in great measure 
upon the effect exerted upon the nervous system of the mother by 
him. Hence, the preponderance of one or other of the parents 
will, in great measure, depend upon the greater or less strength of 
nervous system in each. No general law is known by which this 
can be measured, nor is anything known of the laws which regu- 
late the temperament, bodily or mental power, color or conforma- 
tion, of the resulting offspring. 

12. Acquired Qualities are transmitted, whether they belong 
to the sire or dam, and also both bodily and mental. As bad qua- 
lities are quite as easily transmitted as good ones, if not more so, 
it is necessary to take care that in selecting a male to improve the 
stock he is free from bad points, as well as furnished with good 
ones. It is known by experience that the good or bad points of 
the progenitors of the sire or dam are almost as likely to appear 
again in the offspring as those of the immediate parents in whom 
they are dormant. Hence, in breeding, the rule is, that like pro- 
duces like, or the likeness of some ancestor. 

13. The purer or less mixed the breed the more likely it 
is to be transmitted unaltered to the offspring. Hence, whichever 
parent is of the purest blood will be generally more represented in 
the offspring; but as the male is usually more carefully selected 
and of purer blood than the female, it generally follows that he 
exerts more influence than she does ; the reverse being the case 
when she is of more unmixed blood than the sire. 

14. Breeding "In-and-in" is injurious to mankind, and has 
always been forbidden by the Divine law, as well as by most hu- 
man lawgivers. On the other hand, it prevails extensively in a 
state of nature with all gregarious animals (such as the hoise), 
among whom the strongest male retains his daughters and grand- 
daughters until deprived of his harem by younger and stronger 
rivals. Hence, in those of our domestic animals which are natu- 
rally gregarious, it is reasonable to conclude that breeding " in-and- 
in" is not prejudicial, because it is in conformity with their natural 
instincts, if not carried farther by art than nature teaches by her 
example. Now, in nature, we find about two consecutive crosses 
of the same blood is the usual extent to which it is carried, as the 
life of the animal is the limit; and it is a remarkable fact, that in 
practice, a conclusion has been arrived at which exactly coincides 
with these natural laws. " Once in and once out" is the rule for 
breeding given by Mr. Smith in his work on the breeding for the 

9* 



102 THE HORSE. 

turf; but twice in will be found to be more in accordance with tne 
practice of our most successful (early) breeders. 

15. The influence op the first impregnation seems to 
extend to the subsequent ones ; this has been proved by several 
experiments, and is especially marked in the equine genus. In the 
series of examples preserved in the museum of the College of Sur 
geons, the markings of the male quagga, when united with the 
ordinary mare, are continued clearly for three generations beyond 
the one in which the quagga was the actual sire ; and they are so 
clear as to leave the question settled without a doubt. 

16. When some op the elements of which an individual 
sire is composed are in a cordance with others making up those of 
the dam, they coalesce in such a kindred way as to make what is 
called " a hit." On the other hand, when they are too incongru- 
ous, an animal is the result wholly unfitted for the task he is in- 
tended to perform. 

These principles, together with the observations following upon 
them, have been quoted verbatim, at great length, by the late Mr. 
Herbert, in his elaborate quarto work on " The Horse of America," 
with the very flattering testimony that he had done so "not for 
the purpose of avoiding trouble, or sparing time, but because he 
conceives the principles laid down to be correct throughout, the 
reasoning logical and cogent, the examples well taken, and the de- 
ductions such as can scarcely be denied." In support of this 
opinion, he adduces several instances in which a " hit" has occurred 
in America by carrying out the last axiom in the preceding list. 
Thus he says, at page 260 of his second volume, "I think myself 
that it is made clear by recent events, and that such is shown to be 
the case by the tables of racing stock given at the close of the first 
volume, that, previous to the last quarter of a century, the Ame- 
rican turfman was probably breeding in too much of the old Vir- 
ginia and South Carolina ante-revolutionary stock, and that the 
American racehorse has been improved by the recent cross of mo- 
dern English blood. It is also worthy of remark, that every one 
of the four most successful of modern English stallions in this 
country which have most decidedly hit with our old stock — Levia- 
than, Sarpedon, Priam, and Glencoe — all trace back to several 
crosses of Herod blood; Grlenoe and Priam not less than three or 
four several times each to crosses of Partner blood, and directly 
several times over to the Godolphin Barb, or Arabian, which are 
the very strains from which our Virginian stock derives its pecu- 
liar excellence. It is farther worthy of remark, that two stallions 
have decidedly hit with the imported English mare Reel, as proved 
by her progeny, Lecompte and Prioress, respectively to Boston and 
Sovereign. Now Heel, through Glencoe, Catton, Grohanna, and 
Smolensko, has herself no less than seven distinct strains of Herod 



4 ftML 

IHZk ill 




IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 103 

blood Boston, as every one knows, traces directly through Timo- 
leon, Sir Archy, Diomed, Florizel, to Herod. Sovereign, also, 
through Emilius, his sire, has Herod on both lines as his paternal 
and maternal g.g.g. sire ; and Tartar, the sire of Herod, a third 
time, in one remove yet farther back. Now this would go to jus- 
tify Stonehenge's opinion that the recurrence to the same original 
old strains of blood, when such strains have been sufficiently inter- 
mixed and rsndered new by other more recent crosses, is not inju- 
rious, but of great advantage ; and that, on the whole, it is better, 
coeteris paribus, to do such than to try experiments with extreme 
out-crosses." 

IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 

When any new breed of animals is first introduced into this 
country, in-and-in breeding (by which is to be understood the pair- 
ing of relations within the degree of second cousins twice or more 
in succession) can scarcely be avoided ; and hence, when first the 
value of the Arab was generally recognised, the breeder of the 
racehorse of those days could not well avoid having recourse to 
the plan. Thus we find, in the early pages of the Stud-book, con- 
stant instances of very close in-breeding, often carried to such an 
extent as to become incestuous. The result was our modern tho- 
rough-bred ; but it does not follow that because the plan answered 
in producing that celebrated kind of animal, it will be equally 
successful in keeping up the breed in its original perfection. In 
"British Rural Sports," I have given a series of examples of suc- 
cess resulting from each plan, which I shall not now repeat, merely 
remarking that the opinion which I formed from an attentive ex- 
amination of them remains unchanged. This opinion was expressed 
in the following words : — 

"If the whole of the pedigrees to which I have drawn atten- 
tion are attentively examined, the breeder can have no hesitation 
in coming to the conclusion, that in-breeding, carried out once or 
twice, is not only not a bad practice, but is likely to be attended 
with goDd results. Let him ask what horses have been the most 
remarkable of late years as stallions, and, with very few exceptions, 
he will find they were considerably in-bred. It has been remarked, 
that the Touchstone and Defence Mood almost always hits with the 
Selim ; but it is forgotten that the one was already crossed with 
that horse, and the other with his brother Rubens. On the other 
hand, the Whisker blood in the Colonel has not succeeded so well, 
it being made up of much crossed and more distinctly related parti- 
cles, and therefore not hitting with the Selim and Castrel blood, 
like his cousins, Touchstone and Defence. It has, however, par- 
tially succeeded when in-bred to the Waxy and Buzzard blood, as 
in Chatham and Fugleman, who both reunite these three strains. 
The same applies to Coronation, who unites the Whalebone blood 



104 THE HORSE. 

in Sir Hercules with that of Rubens in Ruby ; but as Waxy and 
Buzzard, the respective ancestors of all these horses, were both 
grandsons of Herod, and great-grandsons of Snap, it only strength- 
ens the argument in favor of in-breeding. This conclusion is in 
accordance with the 14th and 15th axioms, which embody the 
state of our present knowledge of tbe theory of generation ; and 
if they are examined, they will be seen to bear upon the present 
subject, so as to lead one to advise the carrying out of the practice 
of in-and-in breeding to the same extent as has been found so suc- 
cessful in the instances which I have given. Purity of blood is 
intimately connected with the practice, because the nearer it is to 
one standard, the more unmixed it is, and by consequence the more 
fully it is represented in the produce. Hence, it is doubly needful 
to take care that this pure blood is of a good kind ; because if bad, 
it will perpetuate its bad qualities just as closely as it would the 
good, or perhaps still more so." 

I have nothing to add to these remarks ; and if I were to adduce 
the few instances in their support which can have occurred since 
1855-6, when they were written, I should add little to the mass of 
evidence which I have already collected. An appeal to the past 
can only be answered in the way which I have recorded ; for the 
evidence of repeated success in resorting to the practice of in-breed- 
ing is too strong to be gainsaid. We will now consider whether 
the effects of an out-cross are of superior or equal value. 

OUT-CROSSING. 

Between in-and-in breeding, which I have defined as the 
pairing of animals within the relationship of second cousins, and 
the opposite extreme of uniting those which are not at all allied in 
blood, there are many degrees ; but as, in the thorough-bred horse, 
there are scarcely two in the Stud-book which cannot be traced 
back to the same stock in one or more lines, we do not generally 
understand " a cross" to demand absolute distinctness of blood. 
For instance, Teddington is generally considered as the result of 
as marked a cross as we ever met with in the modern Stud-book. 
For five generations, the same name never appears in the pedigree 
tables of his sire and dam ; but in the sixth, we find the name of 
Sir Peter occur three times on the side of his sire, and twice on 
that of his dam, besides six other lines of Herod blood on the part 
of the sire, and eight on that of the dam. Here, therefore, there 
was a return to the original lines of blood, which had been in-bred 
twice each, after five successive departures from them as far as 
could be effected in this particular kind of horse. The last are 
called " crosses," though not being exactly the reverse of in-breed« 
ing, for the reason, as I before remarked, that an absolute freedom 
from relationship is not to be found, or, if so, extremely rarely 



ADVANTAGES, ETC. 105 

Breeders very often fancy that they put two animals together 
which aie without any corresponding lines or strains of blood in 
their composition ; whereas, in point of fact, the relationship exists 
ouly feur or five degrees off. The horse and mare are, perhaps, 
fourth or fifth cousins, often second or third ; but, in examining 
the Stud-book, the blood of the sire, grandsire, and great-grandsire 
is apt to be forgotten, because it is not given, the name only being 
mentioned In the book to which I have already alluded, I have 
inserted a long series of pedigree tables, drawn out to the sixth 
generation, with a reference also to the earlier pedigrees; by 
which, at one glance, the breeder may see how constantly, in 
going back, the same names occur in every table. Eclipse, Herod, 
and Conductor, the three contemporary descendants of the Darley 
Arab, the Byerly Turk, and the Godolphin Barb, or one of their 
immediate descendants, will be seen in the fifth, sixth, and seventh 
remove of all our thorough-bred horses, and often the names of all 
three will be found repeated four, five, or six times apiece ; yet the 
horse itself whose pedigree is being examined, as in the instance 
of Teddington, is considered to be the produce of a cross, and is 
not, therefore said to be in-bred. 

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EACH PLAN. 

Having thus explained the meaning of the twp terms, and 
having, in "British Rural Sports," collected a series of examples 
of success in crossing nearly equal in number to those adduced in 
which in-breeding had been resorted to advantageously, I shall 
now proceed to say a few words upon the probable advantages to 
be derived from each plan. In the first place, it may be laid 
down that nearly an equal number of good horses have lately been 
bred by adopting either mode of proceeding ; but no first-rate horse 
has appeared whose parents were incestuously allied. In the second 
place, it may be gathered from experiments with horses and other 
domestic animals, that very close in-breeding, continued for any 
length of time, is apt to develop the weak points in the constitu- 
tions of the breed in which it is adopted. The cautious breeder, 
therefore will do well to avoid running this risk, and will strive to 
obtain what he wants without having recourse to the practice, 
though, at the same time, he will make up his mind that it is 
unwise to sacrifice a single point with this view. Experience 
tells us that it is useless to expect to develop a new property or 
quality in the next generation, by putting a female entirely 
deprived of it to a male which possesses it even in a marked 
degree. Some instances of success will attend the adoption of 
this cosrse, but as a rule it cannot be relied on in the majority of 
instances. Thus, a slow, stout mare, containing no lines of fast 
blood in her pedigree, will not be likely to breed a fast colt, though 



106 THE HORSE. 

put to a flying stallion, whose blood is not stout in a considerable 
proportion of his ancestry. Two or three consecutive crosses with 
the same or similar blood will almost of a surety effect the object; 
but the first will rarely do so. Again, we know, if we put two 
animals together, equally in-bred or equally crossed, the produce 
is, on the whole, as likely to resemble the one parent as the other, 
though there may be a difference of opinion as to particular points. 
But, if not thus equally composed of similar elements, the more 
in-bred parent will be represented in a greater proportion than 
the crossed one ; and hence it follows, that if it is desired to keep 
up the qualities of the horse or mare in his or her descendant, the 
mate must be selected, if possible, less in-bred than he or she is. 
West Australian himself and his stock are excellent examples of 
this theory. His sire, Melbourne, was the result of a series of 
crosses; while his dam, Mowerina, was in-bred to Whalebone and 
Whisker, own brothers ; and her sire and dam were second cousins. 
The result has been, that both in " The West" and in his stock 
the Whalebone element has been universally manifested, and not 
the slightest trace of Melbourne has ever appeared, as far as my 
knowledge of his stock allows me to judge. This is in perfect 
accordance with the 13th anxiom in the epitome of the laws 
which govern the breeding of our domestic animals. (See page 
101.) 

CAUSES OF A "HIT." 

A " HIT," in breeding, is understood to mean an instance of suc- 
cess ; but though it often occurs, the reason for it is not always 
very clear. My own belief is that it generally results, as I have 
laid down in the 16th axiom, from the reunion of lines which have 
been often kept separate for several generations. Thus, it is a 
fact (so patent that every writer on the breeding of the horse, of 
late years, has admitted its truth), that the Touchstone and Sultan 
blood have almost invariably hit. The reason, granting the pre- 
mises which I lay down, is plain enough — each goes back to Selim, 
the former through the dam of his sire, Camel, and the latter being 
son of that horse. Many other examples of a similar nature might 
be adduced, though not observed so extensively as in the case of 
Touchstone, because few horses have been put to so many mares 
as he has. I do not mean to assert that no hit can occur without 
such a reunion of previously separated lines, but I believe that, 
under other circumstances, it will rarely be found to show itself; 
and if, as I before observed, there is a relationship between all 
thorough-bred horses, either remote or near, there must be this 
reunion to some extent. This, however, is not what I mean ; the 
return must be to a line only removed two, three, or four genera- 
tions, in order to be at all marked; and if more than these inter- 



A "HIT"— SOUNDNESS OF PARENTS. 107 

vals exist, the hit cannot be said to depend upon the reunion, since 
this must occur in all cases ; and what is common to all cannot be 
instanced as a particular cause of any subsequent result. 

The fact really is, as proved by thousands of examples, that 
by putting A and B together, the produce is not necessarily made 
up of half of each. Both parents have qualities belonging to the 
several members of a long line of ancestors, and their son (or 
daughter) may possibly be made up of as many as seven propor- 
tions of one parent, and one proportion of the other. It generally 
happens, that if there is any considerable degree of consanguinity, 
or even a great resemblance in form, to some of the ancestry on 
each side, the produce will draw together those elements, and will 
be made up of the characteristics peculiar to them in a very large 
proportion. This accounts for the preponderance of the Touch- 
stone form in the West Australian stock ; while the same horse is 
overpowered in Orlando and his stock, by the greater infusion of 
Selim blood in the dam Vulture, who is removed exactly in the 
same degree as Touchstone from Selim and his brother Castrel; 
and the two latter, therefore, have more influence on the stock than 
the former. Here, then, we have two remarkable instances, which 
each show a hit from the reunion of strains after two out-crosses ; 
while, at the same time, they severally display an example of two 
lines overpowering one in the stock of the same horse. It may be 
argued, that in each case it is the blood of the dam which has 
overpowered that of the sire, — West Australian being by Mel- 
bourne, out of a daughter of Touchstone ; while Orlando is by 
Touchstone, out of a mare descended from two lines of Selim and 
his brother Castrel. Now, I am myself a great believer in the in- 
fluence of the dam over her progeny, and therefore I should be 
ready to accept this argument, were it not that, under ordinary 
circumstances, both Melbourne and Touchstone have been sure to 
reproduce their likenesses in their several sons and daughters. 
Every racing man who has been on the turf while the Melbournes 
and Touchstones were in their glory, was able, in almost all in- 
stances, to say at the first glance, " That is a Melbourne or a Touch- 
stone colt or filly." But, in the cases of Orlando and West Aus- 
tralian, the resemblance to their respective sires was not apparent; 
and, as I before observed, it is still less visible in their stock. In 
the language of the stud, this is called " going back" to a particular 
strain; and it is so constantly observable, that there is no necessity 
for dwelling further upon it. 

IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH AND SOUNDNESS IN BOTH SIRE 
AND DAM. 

Our present breed op horses is undoubtedly less healthy 
than that of our ancestors ; and this tendency to unsoundness ia 



a08 THE HORSE. 

not marked in any particular department of the animal economy, 
but the defect shows itself wherever the strain is the greatest from 
the nature of the work which the animal has to perform. Thus, 
the racehorse becomes a roarer, or his legs and feet give way. The 
hunter fails chiefly in his wind or his hocks, because he is not used 
much on hard ground, and therefore his fore legs are not severely 
tried, as in the case with the racer, who often has to extend him- 
self over a course rendered almost as hard as a turnpike-road by 
the heat of a July or August sun. The harness-horse often be- 
comes a roarer, from the heavy weights that he has to draw, espe- 
cially if his windpipe is impeded by his head being confined by 
the bearing-rein. The hack, again, suffers chiefly in his legs, from 
our hard Macadamised roads ; while the cart-horse becomes unsound 
in his hocks or his feet, the former parts being strained by his 
severe pulls, and the latter being battered and bruised against the 
ground, from having to bear the enormous weight of his carcass. 
But it is among our well-bred horses that unsoundness is the most 
frequent; and in them, I believe, it may be traced to the constant 
breeding from sires and dams which have been thrown out of train- 
ing, in consequence of a break-down, or " making a noise," or from 
some other form of disease. It is quite true, that roaring is not 
necessarily transmitted from father to son ; and it is also manifest 
that there are several causes which produce it, some of which are 
purely accidental, and are not likely to be handed down to the next 
generation. The same remarks apply to the eyes; but, in the main, 
it may be concluded that disease is hereditary, and that a sound 
horse is far more likely to get healthy stock than an unsound one. 
In the mare, probably, health is still more essential; but if the 
breeder regards his future success, whether he is establishing a 
stud of racehorses, or of those devoted to any kind of slower work, 
he will carefully eschew every kind of unsoundness, and especially 
those which are of a constitutional character. If a horse gets 
blind in an attack of influenza, or if, without any previous indica- 
tions of inflammation, he breaks down from an accidental cause, 
the defect may be passed over, perhaps; but, on the contrary, when 
the blindness comes on in the form of ordinary cataract, or the 
break-down is only the final giving-way in a leg which has been 
long amiss, I should strongly advise an avoidance of the horse 
which has displayed either the one or the other. I believe that a 
government inspection of all horses and mares used for breeding 
purposes would be a great national good ; and I look forward to its 
establishment, at no distant time, as the only probable means of 
insuring greater soundness in our breeds of horses. I would not 
have the liberty of the subject interfered with. Let every man 
breed what he likes, but I would not let him foist the produce on 
the public as sound, when they are almost sure to go amiss as soon 



BEST AGE TO BREED FROM. 109 

as they are worked. Ships must now all be registered at Lloyd's, 
in the classes to which they are entitled by their condition ; and 
horses, as well as mares, should be registered in the same way, 
according to the opinion which the government inspector may form 
as to their health and the probability of getting or producing sound 
and useful foals. The purchaser would call for the registration- 
mark, when he asked for the pedigree of the horse he was about 
to buy; and if it was not a favorable one, he would, of course, be 
placed upon his guard. If this plan could be carried out in prac- 
tice, as well as it looks on paper, much good might be done, I am 
assured ; but we all know that inspectors are but mortals, and that 
they are liable to be biassed in more ways than one. Still, I be- 
lieve that the evil is becoming so glaring, that something must 
soon be done ; and I see no other mode so likely as this to be ad- 
vantageous to the interests of the purchaser and user of the horse. 

BEST AGE TO BREED FROM. 

The general opinion throughout England is, that one or 
other of the parents should be of mature age; and that if a very 
young mare is chosen, the horse should not be less than eight, ten, 
or twelve years old. If both are very young or very old, the pro 
duce is generally small and weakly ; but by adopting the plan above- 
mentioned, the services of young and old may be fully utilized. A 
great many of our very best performers on the turf have been got 
by old stallions ; as, for instance, Whisker, son of Waxy, in his 
twenty-second year ; Emilius, son of Orville, in his twentieth ; 
Voltigeur and Newminster, whose sires were respectively twenty-one 
and seventeen ; Blink Bonny, who was got by Melbourne, in his 
twentieth year; and Wild Dayrell, by Ion, when seventeen years old. 
To these may be added, Gemma di Vergy, Lifeboat, and Gunboat, 
three celebrated sons of Sir Hercules, and all got by him after he 
was twenty years old — the last named when he was twenty-five 
years of age. So, also, many were out of old mares ; including 
Priam, whose dam was twenty when she dropped him; Crucifix, 
the daughter of Octaviana, when twenty-two years old ; Lottery, 
out of Mandane, in her twentieth year ; and Brutandorf, produced 
by the same mare when she was twenty-two. From these instances, 
the breeder may conclude that age is no bar to success, if matched 
with youth on the other side; but the instances of success in breed- 
ing from two aged parents are rare indeed. It is next to be ascer- 
tained what is the earliest age at which this animal can be relied 
on for breeding ; and here, again, example is better than theory. 
The most remarkable instance of moderate success in adopting this 
plan is in that of The Ugly Buck, whose dam, Monstrosity, was 
put to Venison when only a two-year-old. The horse, also, was 
not more than seven, and the dam of Monstrosity bred her in her 
10 



110 THE HORSE. 

fourth year. But though Ugly Buck promised well as a two-year- 
old, he failed in his subsequent career, and his example is not, there- 
fore, to be considered as at all conclusive. Still, his is a most ex- 
traordinary instance, and as such it should not be lost sight of. 
There are many cases in which the first produce of a mare has been 
her best; such as, in former times, Mark Anthony, Conductor, 
Shuttle Pope, Filho da Puta, Sultan, Pericles, Oiseau, Doctor Syn- 
tax, Manfred, and Pantaloon. Nevertheless, these may be con- 
sidered to be exceptions, and a large majority of the brood mares 
in the Stud-book are credited with their most successful produce 
subsequently to their first. The rule generally adopted is to wait 
till the mare is three years old before breeding from her, and then 
to put her to a horse of at least full maturity — that is to say, seven 
or eight years old. 

THE INFLUENCE OF THE SIRE AND DAM RESPECTIVELY. 

I have already, at page 40, alluded to this question as relating 
to the breeding of the Arab horse in his native country, and have 
there shown that the opinions held by Abd-el-Kader, in modern 
days, do not coincide with those which have long been supposed 
to be general in Arabia. In the passage which I have there 
quoted, this celebrated chief attempts to define the exact part which 
each parent takes in producing the foal, but he goes still farther in 
subsequent answers to the questions asked by General Daumas, in 
relation to the value put by the Arabs on their stallions and mares 
respectively. To these Abd-el-Kader replies as follows : " It is 
true that Arabs prefer mares to horses, but only for the following 
reasons : the first is that they look at the profit which may arise 
from a mare as very considerable. Some Arabs have realized as 
much as 20,000 dollars from the produce of one mare. They have 
a proverb that ' the fountain-head of riches is a mare that produces 
a mare.' This is corroborated by the prophet Mahomet, who says, 
1 Let mares be preferred, their bellies are a treasure, their backs the 
seat of honor.' The greatest blessing is an intelligent wife or a 
mare that produces plenty of foals." These words are thus ex- 
plained by commentators : Their bellies are a treasure because the 
mare by her produce increases the riches of her master ; and their 
backs are the seat of honor, because the pace of a mare is easier 
than that of a horse ; and there be those that say it is sufficiently 
so as in time to render a horseman effeminate. The second reason 
is that a mare does not neigh in war, that she bears hunger, thirst, 
and heat better than a horse, and that therefore she is more useful 
to people whose riches consist in camels and sheep. Now all the 
world knows that our camels and sheep thrive only in the desert, 
where the soil is so arid that Arabs drinking chiefly milk find water 
seldom oftener than every eight or ten days, in consequence of the 



INFLUENCE OF SIRE AND DAM. HI 

distance between the pasturages, which are only to be found in the 
neighborhood of wells. The mare is like the serpent, their pow- 
ers increase in hot weather and in arid countries. Serpents which 
live in cold or watery countries have little venom or courage, so 
that their bite is seldom mortal, whereas those that live in hot 
countries are more irritable, and the virulence of their poison is 
increased. Whilst the horse can less easily bear the heat of the 
sun, the mare, doubtless from constitutional causes, finds her ener- 
gies increase with the greatest heat. The third reason is that the 
mare requires less care and less nourishment. The owner can lead 
and turn her out to graze with the sheep and camels, and he is not 
obliged to have a person constantly watching her j whereas a horse 
cannot do without being highly fed, and he cannot be turned out 
without an attendant for obvious reasons. These are the true rea- 
sons of an Arab's preference for mares. It does not arise from 
the foal inheriting the qualities of the dam rather than those of the 
sire ) it does not proceed from its being better at all times and 
under all circumstances to ride a mare rather than a horse ; but it 
is based upon material interests, and on the necessities enforced by 
the description of life which Arabs lead. It must, however, be 
admitted that a horse is more noble than a mare. He is stronger, 
more courageous, and faster. That a horse is stronger than a mare 
is thus proved. If both were struck by the same mortal wound 
a mare would fall at once, but a horse would seldom drop until h 
had carried his rider into safety. I saw a mare struck by a ball 
on the leg ; the bone was broken ; unable to bear the pain she fell 
immediately. A horse was hit in the same manner; the broken 
limb hung only by the skin ; he continued his course, supporting 
himself on his sound leg, until he bore his rider from the battle- 
field and then fell. The Arabs prefer mares to horses for the rea- 
sons I have given, and those reasons are sufficient to show why 
amongst us the value attached to the possession of a mare is greater 
than that they attach to the possession of a horse, even though the 
breeding of each were the same ; for whilst on the one hand the 
foal takes more after the sire than the dam, on the other the pro- 
prietor of a horse cannot gain in many years as much as the pro- 
prietor of a mare can gain in one year if she throw a foal. 
However, when a horse has displayed any extraordinary qualities, 
it often happens that he will not be parted with, probably pro- 
ducing to his master in the way of booty or otherwise as much as 
the most valuable mare. I saw amongst the Annazas, a tribe ex- 
tending from Bagdad to Syria, horses so beyond all price that it 
was almost impossible to purchase them, and certainly impossible 
to pay ready money for them. These animals, of a fabulous value, 
are sold only to the highest personages, or to rich merchants who 
pay for them by thirty or forty instalments, or by a perpetual rent 



112 THE HORSE. 

settled on the vendor or his decendants. The birth of a horse caE 
never be considered a misfortune by an Arab, however much he 
may prefer a mare for the material advantages which they procure. 
Mares almost always produce, and it is on that account principally 
that they are preferred. I repeat it — the birth of an animal that 
guarantees its master against humiliation can never be considered 
a misfortune. A poet says : ' My brothers reproach me with my 
debts, yet I never contracted one but for an honorable purpose. 
In giving the bread of heaven to all, in purchasing a horse of noble 
race, and buying a slave to attend upon me." — Bailey's Magazine 
of Sports, June, 1860. 

My own belief in this matter, founded upon observations made 
during a long series of years on the horse as well as the dog, is 
that no rule can be laid down with any certainty. Much depends 
upon the comparative physical power and strength of constitution 
in each parent, even more perhaps than the composition of the 
blood. There have been many instances of two brothers being 
used in the stud, both among horses and greyhounds, in which one 
has almost invariably got his stock resembling himself in all par- 
ticulars, not even excluding color, while the descendants of the 
other have rarely been recognisable as his. Thus among horses 
the Touchstones have been mostly brown or dark bay, and as a lot 
have shown a high form as racehorses, while the Launcelots have 
been of all colors, and have been below mediocrity on the turf. 
Several examples of the same nature may be quoted from among 
greyhounds, such as Ranter, Gripsey Prince, and Gipsey Royal, 
three brothers whose stock were as different as possible, but the 
fact is so generally recognised that it is not necessary to dwell upon 
it. Now surely this difference in the power of transmitting the 
likeness of the sire, when the blood is exactly the same as it is 
observed to extend over large numbers, can only depend upon a 
variation in individual power. Not only does this apply to the 
males, but the females also show the same difference. Some mares 
have gone on producing foals which afterwards turned out first- 
class whatever horse they were put to, as, for instance, Phryne 
(dam of winners by Pantaloon, Melbourne, and The Flying Dutch- 
man), Barbelle, who produced Van Tromp by Lanercost, De Witt 
by The Provost, and The Flying Dutchman by Bay Middleton. 
Alice Hawthorne, successively as well as successfully put to Bird- 
catcher, Melbourne, Touchstone, Windhound, Melbourne or Wind- 
hound, and Sweetmeat; and lastly, Ellerdale, dam of Ellington 
and Ellermere, and Grildermire by Flying Dutchman, Summerside 
by West Australian, and Wardersmarke by Birdcatcher. On ap- 
pealing to the greyhound, also, we see some remarkable instances 
within the last few years, of which Mr. Jardine's Ladylike and 
Mr. Randell's Riot may be considered as very strong cases in point. 



CHOICE OF SIRE AND DAM. 113 

The latter bitch also may be instanced as having been extremely 
successful in the stud, while her own brother, Ranter, in the same 
kennel, was a total failure. There must consequently be something 
more than mere breeding to produce a successful result, and this I 
am inclined to think resides in the strength of the constitution 
possessed by the individual. 

But even supposing the horse or mare displays this constitu- 
tional power, there is something which controls it, as we have seen 
in the two cases already instanced of Orlando and West Australian. 
In the former horse the influence of the sire, great as it usually 
has been shown to be, was compelled to succumb to the combina- 
tion of the three lines traceable to Selim and his brother Castrel, 
while in the other this same horse Touchstone prevailed (still, 
however, on the side of the dam) apparently only because there 
was a combination of two very recently separated lines of Waxy 
blood through his sons Whalebone and Whisker. The second of 
these examples is the more worthy of note, because in tracing 
back the lines of the sire and dam, the name of Trumpeter from 
whom Melbourne is lineally descended is met with three times in 
the pedigree of the former, and four times in that of the latter. 
Here then but for the nearness of the two lines of Waxy I should 
have expected the produce to follow the Trumpator strain through 
Melbourne, but as I have already observed, beyond the third re- 
move this influence is very much weakened. We may therefore 
come to the conclusion that it is not always superior strength of 
constitution, nor the greater purity or antiquity of the blood which 
determines the influence to be expected by either parent, but that 
sometimes the one and sometimes the other is the cause. And as 
the former cannot well be determined, the latter is the foundation 
for the plans of the breeder, who will on the whole do well to fol- 
low the maxims first laid down by that celebrated breeder of horses 
and cattle, the second Earl Spencer, whose opinions were in con- 
formity with the 13th axiom for breeders which I have inserted at 
page 101. 

CHOICE OF SIRE AND DAM. 

The necessity eor health in each parent has already been 
insisted on, but beyond this point, which is generally admitted, 
there are several others to be attended to. Thus, since the pre- 
ponderance of either over the form and temper of the progeny will, 
in all probability, fall to that one which has the superior purity of 
blood, it follows that if the breeder wishes to alter in any important 
particular the qualities possessed by his mare, he must select a 
horse which is either better bred or some of whose lines will coa- 
lesce with those of the dam's, which it is desired to perpetuate. 
Thus, supposing a mare to be made up of four lines, two of which 
10* 



114 THE HOUSE. 

are decidedly bad, and one which is so good as to attract the notice 
of her owner, then let him look around and select some horse in 
whose pedigree is to be found a similar strain, taking care that the 
relationship is not so close as to lead to disappointment on the score 
of the bad effects attributable to in-breeding. But there are many 
brood mares not in the Stud-book, whose pedigrees are not ascer- 
tainable, and in their case this rule will not apply. Here a different 
plan must be pursued, and a horse must be chosen whose shape, 
action, or temper coincides with the particular quality which it is 
desired to perpetuate. I am strongly inclined to believe that it is 
comparatively of little use to look about for sires who possess those 
qualities in which the dam is deficient. Such a course of proceed- 
ing has so constantly ended in disappointment, within my own 
knowledge, that I believe I am justified in condemning it. A stal- 
lion (whether horse or greyhound, the same is observable) is known 
to have been very fast, or very stout, as the case may be, and hav- 
ing obtained the one character or the other, breeders have supposed 
that they have only to send mares deficient in either quality, and 
they would insure its development in the produce. If the mare or 
bitch happens to possess among her ancestry stout or fast lines of 
blood, the produce will display the one or the other, if she is put to 
a horse possessing them ; but, on the contrary, if the lines of the 
dam are all fast, or all stout, no first cross with a sire possessing 
the opposite qualities will be likely to have any effect, though no 
doubt there are some few exceptions to this, as to all other rules. 
The instances in support of this position are so numerous within 
my own knowledge, that I should scarcely be able to make a be- 
ginning, and every one draws upon his own experience, or who 
will examine the " Stud Booh" and the "Coursing Calendar" will 
find examples without end throughout every volume of each. It 
would be invidious to select any stallion now in this country, but 
among those which have been well tried here in the stud, and are 
here no longer, may be mentioned the Flying Dutchman. This 
horse was well known to have been himself not only fast, but stout, 
and, as a consequence, even those breeders who are aware of the 
necessity for regarding both of these qualities were induced to 
breed from him, expecting that the result would be to give them 
similar stock in the next generation. The contrary, however, was 
the case. In many cases speed was developed, but in almost every 
instance, without an exception, that speed was not allied with stay- 
ing power. The unlooked-for result has been attributed to his 
sire, Bay Middleton, whose stock have been notoriously flashy ; but 
if the pedigree of Barbelle, his dam, is carefully examined, a still 
stronger reason may be assigned. If her lines are traced back five 
generations, it will be seen that out of her thirty-two progenitors 
in that remove fourteen are descended from Herod or his sire, 



CHOICE OF SIRE AND DAM. 115 

Tartar, and these in addition to the already overflowing quantum 
of the same blood in Bay Middleton himself. Now I am a great 
admirer of the blood of Herod, and I believe him to be one of the 
chief foundations of the high form of our modern horses ; but its 
peculiar characteristic is speed, not stoutness, and it requires a 
combination with the stouter blood of Eclipse, or some other horse 
of that strain, to make the possessor capable of staying a distance. 
With these fast lines the produce of Barbelle has always been fast, 
but it can scarcely occasion surprise that her stoutest son, Van 
Tromp, sho lid be by Lanercost, nor that Orlando, with his double 
lines of Selim and Castrel blood, should get a mere half-miler like 
Zuyder Zee. The Flying Dutchman was, no doubt, a grand per- 
former himself, but his may be regarded as a somewhat exceptional 
case, and this opinion is supported by the failure of his own bro- 
ther (Vanderdecken) on the turf, although cast in a mould which 
would lead one to expect a still greater success. 

In paying attention to the performances of the ancestry 
of both sire and dam, regard must also be had to their size, as this 
element is considered of much importance. Neither a large nor a 
small sire or dam will perpetuate the likeness of himself or herself 
unless descended from a breed which is either the one or the other. 
It only leads to disappointment to breed from a tall stallion or 
mare if either is only accidentally so, and not belonging to a breed 
generally possessing the same characteristics. Many a small mare 
or bitch has surprised her owner by producing him animals much 
larger than herself, but on tracing her pedigree it will almost al- 
ways be found to contain the names of animals of above the average 
size. Moderately small mares are generally of a stronger consti- 
tution than very large ones, and on that account they will often 
answer the purposes of the stud better than larger animals, pro- 
vided they are of a sort usually cast in the mould which is desired. 
This should never be lost sight of by the breeder, and where, as 
in breeding thorough-breds, the pedigree can be traced far enough 
for this purpose, there is no excuse for neglecting the circumstance. 

The above precautions are sufficient in all those cases where 
the pedigree is attainable, but there are many brood mares, as I 
before remarked, in which nothing is known of their antecedents. 
Here, the breeder can only act upon the general rule that " like 
produces like," and cannot take advantage of the addition which 
I have made to the 12th axiom, at page 101, of the words, "or the 
b'hcness of some ancestor." In such cases, for the reason which I 
have given, disappointment will constantly attend upon the first 
experiments, and until the mare has produced her first foal, and he 
has gone on to his third or fourth year, the value of the dam can 
hardly be ascertained. Breeding is always, more or less, a lottery. 



116 THE HORSE 

but when it is carried on with dams of unknown parentage, it is 
ten times more so than it need be. Were I to commence the 
establishment of a breeding stud, whether of cart or carriage 
horses, hacks or hunters, I would never introduce a single mare 
whose dam and grand-dam as well as the sire and grand-sire would 
not be produceable as good specimens of their respective kinds. 
Beyond the second remove there would always be some difficulty in 
going with the lower-bred mares, but I would certainly go as far 
as this in all cases. If the sire and dam, grand-sire and grand- 
dam, were, on the whole, of desirable form and performances, I 
would choose the produce as a brood mare, but not otherwise j and 
though, of course, I should be obliged to pass over some important 
defects in individuals, I would not do so if they were common to 
all, or nearly all, of the four. In this way I should expect to do 
more than by simply choosing " a great roomy mare" without 
knowing her pedigree, in the belief that she would be sure to re- 
produce her likeness. 

THE KIND OF HORSE MOST PROFITABLE FOR THE BREEDER 
TO CHOOSE. 

When a person makes up his mind to bestow his attention on 
the breeding of horses as a speculation, it behooves him to consider 
what kind is best suited to the nature of his land and the length 
of his purse, as well as to his own knowledge of horses. Unless 
he has plenty of fine upland grass and a command of money, it is 
quite useless for him to think of the race-horse ; nor will he do 
well, without these concomitants, to dabble in hunters. Cart-horses, 
now-a-days, pay well when there is work for them to do up to their 
third or fourth year ; and carriage-horses are likewise a good specu- 
lation, when the land is suitable to their development. No one, 
however, should turn his attention to the breeding of hacks on a 
large scale, since they will almost inevitably cost more than they 
will fetch at five years old. The farmer who keeps one or two " nag " 
mares is the only person who can be said to rear hacks without 
loss ; and he only does so, because he begins to use them for his own 
slow work as soon as they are three years old. Even in his case, 
however, I much doubt whether the same food which has been 
given the colts would not have been turned to greater profit if given 
to horned cattle ; and the only thing which can be said in favor of 
the former is, that they eat coarse grass which the latter will refuse. 
To make the breeding of the horse turn out profitably, the hack 
and inferior kind of harness-horse ought to be the culls from a lot 
of colts intended for the hunting-field, and then, the one with the 
other, they may be made to pay. 



THE BROOD MARE AND HER FOAL. 117 

CONCLUDING REMARKS ON BREEDING. 

The angry discussions which have taken place in the year 
i860, between Lord Redesdale and Admiral Rous, indicate plainly 
what is the general opinion on the subject of the diminution in 
the stoutness of our horses. Breeders, therefore, should turn their 
attention to this point, and should be doubly careful to avoid 
weedy or diseased sires and dams. It cannot be denied that our 
modern thorough-breds possess size and speed ; but they certainly 
do not shine in staying powers, as I have already more than once 
remarked. But there are some strains particularly free from this 
defect, and these I have endeavored to point out. It should not, 
moreover, be forgotten that though the thorough-bred horse will 
bear more work, especially at high speed, than any other kind, yet 
he can only do this if well fed and warmly housed. Being a 
native of a warm and dry climate, he requires to be protected from 
the weather ; and the young stock must be well reared in all re- 
spects, or they will never pay. If, therefore, the breeder is not 
determined to put up warm hovels in every paddock, and if he is 
stingy of his corn, he had far better let his stud of mares be com- 
posed of lower bred animals. If a thorough-bred horse and a 
donkey are both fed upon the lowest quantity and quality of food 
which will keep the latter in condition, the donkey would beat its 
high-bred antagonist over a distance of ground — that is to say, sup- 
posing the experiment to be continued long enough to produce a 
permanent effect upon the two animals. A cart-horse colt, or one 
of any kind of low blood, will do well enough if reared, till he is 
put to work, upon grass and hay ; but a race-horse or hunter, of 
high breeding, would show a badly-developed frame, and be com- 
paratively worthless for his particular kind of work, if he were not 
allowed his corn from the time that he is weaned. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
THE BROOD MARE AND HER FOAL. 

The Hovel and Paddock — General Management of the Brood- 
Mare — Treatment when in Foal — After Foaling — Early Man- 
agement of tlie Foal — Weaning. 

Having already alluded to the principles which should 
guide the breeder in the choice of his mares, I need not further 
allude to them beyond the remark that, independently of those 
which I have indicated, he must take care that they are each pos- 
sessed of a frame suitable to carry a foal, and of a constitution 
hardy enough to sustain the drain upon the system caused by the 



118 THE HOUSE. 

young animal, both before and after birth. If the pelvis and back 
ribs are not large and deep, the foetus will not have room to be de- 
veloped and brought into the world ; and unless the mare is a good 
feeder, and is also furnished with an udder which will give suffi- 
cient milk, she will not afford enough nourishment to her foal, 
which will, therefore, be weakly and badly developed in its pro- 
portions. The shape may be easily detected beforehand, but the 
constitution and milking properties cannot so well be predicated, 
though the experienced eye and hand of the stud-groom will 
enable him to give a tolerably correct guess. 

HOVEL AND PADDOCK. 

If the breeder is about to undertake the production of a 
number of horses of any kind, he must establish a regular stud- 
farm, which for all horses should be on sound upland, with a sub- 
soil of chalk or gravel. The presence of fine white clovers is in 
itself almost sufficient to show that the soil will be suitable to the 
horse ; but, if possible, there should be an absolute practical know- 
ledge that the situation has agreed with the animal, before any 
heavy investment is made. If the surface fall is good, draining 
may not be necessary, but in most cases the herbage will be greatly 
improved by the introduction of tiles. Low, marshy situations may 
serve during the autumn months to freshen up a stall horse, but 
they are utterly unfit for the rearing of young stock, and should 
be carefully avoided. If the stud is highly bred, and the feeding 
is to be good, the colts will be very mischievous, and unless care 
is taken to make the fences safe, they will break bounds, or injure 
themselves in the attempt. Deep ditches are very unsafe, for the 
mare as well as her foal are very apt to get cast in them, with a 
serious or fatal injury as the result. Posts and rails answer well 
enough, where timber is plentiful, but, in the long run, they are 
expensive from the necessity for constant repairs. Banks with thorn 
hedges on the top are the very best of all means for enclosing the 
paddocks, and are even better than stone walls, which, however, are 
excellent for the purpose if they have the soil raised against their 
bases, without which the foal is liable to slip up against their sur- 
face, and thus sometimes blemish his knees. There is a great 
difference of opinion as to the size necessary for the paddocks, and 
the number of mares which should be allowed in each. In some 
well conducted stud-farms, as, for instance, in that belonging to the 
Rawcliffe Company, near York, the enclosures are very large, and 
a dozen, or even as many as eighteen, mares and their foals are 
turned out together as soon as the weather permits, and the spring 
grass grows high enough. In others, as at the Hampton Court and 
Middle Park establishments, the paddocks are each only calcu- 
lated to take three or four mares and their foals ; and the yearlings, 



HOVEL ANI PADDOCK. 119 

also, are never allowed to exceed four in any one paddock. Mr. 
Martin, the clever and experienced manager of the first-named stud, 
is of opinion that colts should have room enough to gallop, and 
thus early accustom their joints and sinews to bear the strains which 
they must, sometime or other, be subjected to. On the other hand, 
the argument is held that in a small paddock the foal gallops quite 
as much a= in the larger one, and puts his joints to the strain in 
stopping himself at the corners, whilst there is less injury from 
other accidental causes, such as kicks and the jamming of a lot, 
together in a narrow gateway. On the whole I am inclined to be- 
lieve that the latter plan is the best, for experience shows that a 
well-fed foal will gallop daily, for hours together, even in a two 
acre paddock. 

At foaling time each mare must have a separate hovel or 
loose-box, but as, practically, it is found that she always gives 
some few hours' notice of her approaching parturition, it is the 
custom to bring her into the close neighborhood of the house of 
the stud -groom at night, so that he may be at hand to render her 
assistance', if necessary. Any loose-box answers for that purpose, 
if it does not open to a warm stable, which would render it too 
hot for an animal which has been for months exposed to the open 
air. But after foaling the mare will also require a hovel to her- 
self for six weeks or two months, when the foal will be strong 
enough to take care of itself in running among other mares. 
Indeed, at all times, the mares should at night be in separate hovels, 
even when during the day they run in the same paddock with two 
or three others. This hovel should be about twelve to fifteen feet 
long, and not less than ten feet wide. The height may easily be 
too great, because in the early spring the weather is often so 
severe that the mare cannot impart sufficient heat to a very large 
volume of air. From eight to nine feet will therefore be ample, 
the former being well suited to the larger area which I have given 
above, and the latter to the smaller. It is a very common plan, 
when economy is much studied, to build four hovels back to back, 
at the angles formed by four small runs, by which a saving in the 
internal walls is effected. This, however, necessitates a northerly 
or easterly aspect for two out of the four, either of which is objec- 
tionable. Two hovels may readily be placed side by side in the 
most desirable situation, and these may be made to open into 
separate runs. The walls should be built of brick or stone, which- 
ever is locally the cheaper material, or where gorse is abundant 
they may be formed from it, being the cheapest of all. 

In some counties what is called "wattle and dab" is very 
generally employed for outbuildings of this kind, and when they 
are roofed with thatch, which carries the water well off the sides, 
it answers very well. It is composed of common wood quarter- 



120 THE HORSE. 

ings, with the uprights connected together by transverse hare like 
the rounds of a ladder, about eight inches apart. When the 
whole framework is put together thus, some soil, which should be 
clay or loam, is well worked together with straw and water into a 
tenacious mixture, which is forked over each transverse bar in 
succession, and the whole smoothed down till it assumes a regular 
and even surface. Cottages and outbuildings are put up in this 
way in Devonshire and Dorsetshire at very little expense, straw 
costing the farmer little or nothing, either for the walls or the 
roof, and the wood being also the produce of his own land. The 
labor, therefore, is the only part which costs money, and that ia 
not paid for at a very high rate, where wages rarely exceed nine 
shillings a week. When gorse is used, it is adopted in the follow- 
ing way: — The door-posts and uprights are first fixed, and should 
be either of oak — which is best — or of good sound Memel fir; 
they should be about six inches by four, and should be fixed six 
feet apart, with three feet sunk in the ground. After thus fixing 
the framework, and putting on the wall-plate and rafters, the whole 
internal surface is made good by nailing split poles of larch, or 
other timber, closely together across the uprights, taking especial 
care to round off the ends when they appear at the door-posts. 
Thus the whole of the interior is tolerably smooth, and no accident 
can happen from the foal getting his leg into any crevice between 
the poles, if care is taken to nail them securely, and to leave no 
space between them. When this internal framework is finished, 
the gorse is applied outside, as follows : It is first cut into small 
branches, leaving a foot-stalk to each, about twelve or fifteen inches 
in length : these branches are arranged in layers between the up- 
rights, the stalks pointing upwards and inwards, and the prickly 
ends downwards and outwards. When, by a succession of layers 
of these brushy stalks, a height of eighteen inches has been raised, 
a stout and tough pole, about the size of an ordinary broom-stick, 
and six feet long, is laid upon the middle of the gorse, and so as 
to confine it against the split poles and between the uprights. The 
workmen kneel upon this pole, and by its means compress the 
gorse into the smallest possible compass, and while thus pressed 
down, and against the internal framework, it is confined to the lat- 
ter by five or six loops of strong copper wire. When this is pro- 
perly done, the gorse is so firmly confined, and withal so closely 
packed, that neither wind nor rain can penetrate, nor can all the 
mischief-loving powers of the foal withdraw a single stalk. After 
fixing the first layer, a second is built up in the same way, and 
when neatly done the exterior is as level as a brick wall j but if 
there are any very prominent branches they may be sheared off 
with the common shears, or taken off with the ordinary hedging 
bill-hook. Wt^n it is desired to make the exterior look very 



HOVEL AND PADDOCK. 121 

smooth, a hay-trusser's knife is used ; but the natural ends, though 
not so level, are a much better defence, and last longer than the 
out gorse. In the interior the stalks sometimes project, and if so 
they must be smoothly trimmed off. The roof should be covered 
in with some material, which is cool in summer and warm in win- 
ter, and for this purpose, therefore, nothing is so bad as slate, or 
so good as thatch. Objections are sometimes made to the latter 
material that it harbors vermin, but if the mares are well fed, I 
must doubt their ever becoming lousy, unless these parasites ire 
introduced by some animal from without. In any case, tiles are 
preferable to slates, and on the average they are also cheaper. 
Pantiles are not easily made proof against the wind, but plane- 
tiles, when properly pointed, are quite air-tight, and are far warmer 
in cold weather than slates, while they are also cooler in summer. 
The door should be at least four feet or four feet six inches wide, 
and seven feet to seven feet sis inches high, with all the angles to 
the sides and top of the frame rounded off to prevent accident 
from striking the hip or head. The door, of oak or elm, should 
be cut in half across the middle, so as to allow the lower half to 
be shut, while the upper, being open, admits a free supply of air. 
A small wiudow should be inserted in the wall, for light and ven- 
tilation when the door is closed. When straw is abundant it is 
usual to leave the floor in its natural state, the litter absorbing all 
that falls from the mare and foal, and being changed often enough 
to keep the place dry. In case, however, this cannot be done, the 
flooring should be similar to that for ordinary stables, that is to 
say, laid with bricks or pebbles, clinkers being much too expen- 
sive for such a purpose. Where chalk is abundant, it forms an 
excellent floor, if a drain is cut all round the building, and the soil 
being taken out to the depth of nearly a foot, the chalk is filled 
in to a little above the level of the natural surface, and is then 
well rammed down, a drain and trap being inserted in the middle. 
The last point which requires consideration is the kind of manger 
which is best adapted to the use of the mare and her foal, if the 
latter is to be fed in the way proper to thorough-bred stock. In 
any case, a wooden manger of the ordinary kind should be fixed, 
with a staple for the rack-chain to fasten her up. A hay rack 
should be so arranged that it can be filled from the outside without 
difficulty; which is easily managed by building a little wooden 
excrescence on to one of the outer walls, leaving a hole in the latter 
for the mare to feed herself through. A wooden lid, covered with 
zinc, lifts up and permits the introduction of the fodder without 
the necessity for carrying a fork into the hovel, which will some- 
times injure the mare or her foal. Well-bred young animals of 
this species are so mischievous that when shut up they will jump 
into any place which can possibly hold them, and many a broken 



122 THE HORSE. 

leg or back lias ensued from an open hay-rack, placed near the 
ground, attracting the gambols of a foal. A few wooden bars 
nailed across the opening effectually prevents this, while the addi- 
tion of a low manger in another corner provides for the feeding 
of the foal with kibbled oats, if such should be the plan adopted, 
and the fourth is occupied by a water-tank. External to the 
hovel the only provision necessary is a yard, which may be omitted 
if the paddock is always dry from the land being well drained. 
Unless this is the case, however, the yard should always be pro- 
vided, as there are many days throughout the year when the 
weather is fine enough over head to allow of the foal being turned 
out of doors with advantage, if it can be protected from the wet 
grass or wetter soil. A yard is, therefore, truly valuable in the 
absence of a dry soil, and it should be paved with bricks, stones, 
or pebbles, well covered with a layer of litter, to prevent slips and 
strains. 

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF TEE BROOD MARE. 

When it has been decided to breed from a mare, if she is 
not already thrown out of work, it will often be necessary to cool 
her down, by turning her out to grass and taking away her corn, 
before she will become stinted. Thorough-bred mares are not, as 
a rule, allowed to take the horse while in work ; but sometimes 
they are so constantly " in use," that no other means will enable 
the trainer to go on with his work of preparation. There is a won- 
derful difference in this respect: some animals are rarely " in use," 
once or twice a year being the outside ; while others are so every 
nine days throughout the spring, — the average, perhaps, being in 
that state at about intervals of two or three months from the time 
of shedding their coats till the beginning of autumn. Again, some 
are not upset in their work by this natural process ; while others 
refuse to feed, lose condition, and cannot be depended on for half 
their usual exertions. Either extreme requires a change of feed- 
ing; for, on the one hand, the cool temperament is excited by the 
freedom of a run at grass, and on the other, the warmer one is 
benefited by losing the heating qualities of her corn. At all events, 
it is found, in practice, that though the majority of maiden mares 
will become stinted while at work, yet that a large number require 
a run at grass before they will become in foal. As I before re- 
marked, thorough-bred mares are generally entirely devoted to the 
etud from the time that they are put to the horse ; but there are 
many others of lower breeding which their owners desire to work 
on for some months afterwards. It is often apparent that the legs 
of a hack or harness-mare are wearing out, and her owner decides 
upon having a foal from her, but wishes to avoid the expense of 
keep from the spring, when he puts her to the horse, till the next 



TREATMENT WHEN IN FOAL. 123 

January or February, varying, of course, with the time of foaling. 
All mares are the better for slow work up to within two months 
of foaling ; but they should not be ridden or driven so fast as to 
occasion exhaustion. Cart-mares are generally used to within a 
few days of their time, taking care to keep them at light work and 
to avoid straining them. With these precautions, if the legs keep 
tolerably sound, a mare may be made to earn her keep for nine 
months out of the eleven which are the duration of her pregnancy. 
The time of sending the mare to the horse will vary with the 
purposes for which her produce is intended. If for racing, it is 
desired that she shall foal as soon as possible after the first of 
January; and as she carries her foal about eleven months, the fii'st 
time of her being " in use" after the first of February is the period 
chosen for her. All other horses take their age from the first of 
May; and as this is the time when the young grass begins to be 
forward enough for the use of the mare, the breeder is not anxious 
to get his half-bred foals dropped much before that time. As, 
however, mares are very uncertain animals, he will do well to take 
advantage of the first opportunity after March, as by putting off 
the visit to the horse, he may be disappointed altogether, or the 
foal may be dropped so late, that winter sets in before it has ac- 
quired strength to bear it. These remarks apply to maiden mares 
only ; those which have dropped a foal are generally put to the 
horse nine or ten days afterwards, when almost every mare is in 
season. For this reason, valuable thorough-bred mares are often 
sent to foal at the place where the sire stands who is intended to 
be used next time. The travelling to him so soon after foaling 
would be injurious to both the dam and her foal, and hence the 
precaution I have named is adopted. The mare then remains to 
be tried at intervals of nine days, and when she is stinted, the foal 
is strong enough to bear any length of journey with impunity. 
Mares and their foals commonly travel by road twenty miles, or 
even more, for this purpose; but they do not often exceed that 
distance, and about fifteen miles a day is quite as much as a nine 
days' old foal can compass without injury, and that done very 
quietly, the mare being led at a slow pace all the way. 

TKEATMENT WHEN IN FOAL. 

When the mare is in foal, if not intended to be kept at 
work, she should be turned out in good pasture; but it should not 
be so rich and succulent as to disagree with her stomach, or make 
her unwieldy from fat. The former mistake is a constant cause 
of miscarriage, the bowels becoming relaxed from the improper 
nature of the food. On the other hand, if it is not sufficiently 
good, the mare will become thin, and will starve her foal in its 
growth. Mares that have been corned highly all their lives should 



124 THE HORSE. 

have a feed or two daily, after they are six months gone, and espe- 
cially if the autumnal grasses are not rich and plentiful. Most 
half-bred animals, however, do very well till about Christmas; 
after which, hay and corn, with a few carrots, should be liberally 
given them, still allowing them to pick up what grass they can find 
in their paddocks. Excessive fat is a state of disease, and inter- 
feres with the due nutrition of the foetus, while it is very daager- 
ous at foaling-time, when it not only interferes with the process, 
but also tends to produce fever. Supposing the mare to be at 
work, she should have some kind of green food — lucerne being the 
best, and vetches, perhaps, the worst for the purpose, the latter 
being too heating, especially to the organs contained within the 
pelvis. Any of the grasses or clovers answer well; and, after they 
are done, carrots form an excellent succedaneum, given sliced in a 
bran mash every night. By adopting these articles of food, the 
mare is kept free from inflammation, and yet the foal is well 
nourished, which are the two essential points to be considered. 

Excitement op every kind is a fertile source of " slipping" 
the foal ; and everything which is at all likely to have that effect 
should be carefully avoided. The smell of blood is said to have a 
very prejudicial influence in this way; and there is no doubt that 
one mare miscarrying will in some mode affect others in proximity 
to her. Possibly the same cause may act on all ; but it seems to 
be generally concluded that the act is really contagious, either from 
what is called sympathy, or in some other as inexplicable way. If 
a mare has " slipped" a foal in a previous pregnancy, double care 
should be taken, as she will be far more likely to do so again than 
another which has hitherto escaped the accident. It occurs most 
frequently about the fourth or fifth month, therefore extra care 
should be taken at that time. The suspected individual should be 
kept quiet by herself; but it is better to allow her the run of a 
small retired paddock, than to confine her to her hovel, where, for 
want of exercise, she will become restless and anxious. Purging 
physic should not be given, unless it is absolutely necessary ; and 
if the bowels are so confined as to require some stimulus of this 
kind, and bran mashes and other changes in the food fail to pro- 
duce any effect, choice should be made of the mildest aperient 
which is likely to answer the purpose. With regard to the ma- 
nagement of the mare in parturition, I shall leave its consideration 
to my colleague, who will, doubtless, be of the same opinion as 
myself, that, if assistance is demanded, it is safer to have recourse 
at once to a properly educated veterinary surgeon. Stud grooms 
who have had much experience will sometimes be able to aid 
Nature with advantage ; but, in the long run, they will probably 
do more harm than good, if they attempt any serious interference. 



EARLY TREATMENT OF THE FOAL. 125 



TREATMENT AFTER FOALING. 

In A healthy state the mare very soon recovers the effort? 
which she has made in bringing forth the foal ; and, in fine wea- 
ther, she may be allowed to enter her paddock on the second day 
afterwards, which is generally soon enough to suit the strength of 
the foal, though occasionally the young animal is very active within 
six" hours after it comes into the world. For a couple of months, 
or perhaps less in some cases, the mare and foal are better kept in 
a paddock by themselves ; but in a large stud this is difficult when 
the 'foals come very quickly • and then several mares of quiet tem- 
perament are put together, still keeping separate those which are 
shy or vicious. Until the mare can get plenty of grass, she should 
have carrots, bran mashes, and a feed or two of oats, which at firsl 
are better given in the shape of gruel — the water with which this 
is made having the chill taken off. Rye-grass is cultivated and cut 
for the mares daily by those who have early foals ; but, though it 
is better than hay, it is not equal to good upland clover-grass. 
Lucerne is excellent, but it cannot be grown so early as rye. I 
have already described, at page 123, the proper time for again 
putting the mare to the horse, so that I need not enter into that 
subject here. During the remainder 
of the time of suckling, no special 
treatment is required, except to see 
that the mare is well fed and protected 
from the weather. At weaning-time, 
she sometimes requires a dose or two 
of cooling medicine ; but generally she 
is so nearly dry, that no interference 
is required. mare and foal. 

EARLY TREATMENT OF THE FOAL. 

If the young animal is well formed and healthy, it will re- 
quire no attention beyond that which I have specified as necessary 
for the dam. There are, however, several accidents to which it is 
liable ; such as rupture either at the navel or flank, inversion of 
the foet, &c. ; all of which will be treated of in their proper places. 
About the time of the mare being " in use," the foal is generally 
purged a good deal, and a warm drench will often be required. At 
the end of a month, or sometimes earlier, the foal will eat bruised 
oats ; and highly-bred young stock are generally allowed, from this 
time, first a single quartern, and then by degrees two quarterns of 
oats. Half-breds, and even cart-horses, would be the better for this 
stimulus to development ; but if it is begun, it should be continued ; 
and, unless the foal shows such promise that it is expected to turn 
out extraordinarily well, the extra expense will not be reimbursed. 
11* 




126 ' THE HORSE. 

The Half-peek of oats cannot be put down as costing less than six 
pounds a year ; and thus, at five years of age, the colt will have 
cost thirty pounds more than if he had been fed on hay and grass 
alone. Now, between a race-horse reared on corn, and another 
confined to hay and grass, the difference in value would be a thou- 
sand per cent.; and in first-class hunters, though not so great as 
this, it would be very considerable. But among inferior horses, on 
the average, it would scarcely reach the sum I have named as the 
prime cost of the oats; and, therefore, though in the depth of 
winter a quartern or half a peck is generally given with a little bran, 
yet, when there is good grass, this is neither necessary nor is it 
economical. Shelter from the weather should, however, be afforded 
to colts of all classes during the winter season ; and unless they 
have this, they soon grow out of form and lose flesh, however well 
they may be fed. It is now fully recognised that warmth and pro- 
tection from the rain encourage the growth of all our domestic 
animals ; but in none are they more influential than in the one 
which I am now discussing. A colt neglected in its first winter 
never recovers its proper shape, nor does it grow into the size and 
strength of body and limbs which naturally appertain to its breed. 
Independently, therefore, of the cruelty in exposing the young 
animal to a climate for which it is not fitted, the plan does not 
pay; and on the latter account, if not on the former, even the 
most heartless, who consider their own interests, will make suitable 
provision for protecting their young horse-stock from the inclem- 
ency of our winter climate. 

The foal should be handled from the very first week of its 
existence ; but there is no occasion to use it roughly in accustom- 
ing it to the pressure of the hand on all parts of its body and 
limbs. If this process is very gradually commenced, no resistance 
will at any time be offered, and the foal will allow its feet to be 
picked up, and its head and ears to be rubbed, without taking 
offence. Grooms are sometimes in the habit of showing off their 
powers in this way, by taking the foal up in their arms ; but this 
can do no good, and may possibly lead to injury of the walls of the 
abdomen. About the fourth or fifth month, and before weaning is 
commenced, a light head-collar should be put on ; and after the 
foal is accustomed to its pressure, by repeatedly handling the part 
on successive days, a leading-rein should be buckled on, and the 
young thing enticed to follow the groom without any absolute co- 
ercion. At the same time, it must be made to feel that resistance 
is useless; and if it begins to pull, it must on no account be al- 
lowed to get away, the groom yielding as long as the foal pulls 
straight back, but coercing it gently with a side strain. A care- 
fully handled foal will rarely give any trouble in this way ; but 
there is an astonishing variation in the power which different men 



WEANING. 127 

have over the animal creation. Some will again control without 
using the slightest violence, while others will be always fighting 
with their charge, and after all will not be able to do nearly as 
much with them as their more quiet and clever rivals. The latter 
class should never be allowed to have anything to do with young 
horses ; and though there may be occasional exceptions which re- 
quire severe measures, yet if once a man is found resorting to vio- 
lence with a foal which he has had the management of from the 
first, he should, in my opinion, be removed from his post; or, at 
all events, he should be carefully watched, and a repetition of the 
offence ought to be considered as a notice to quit. Long before 
the coming among us of Mr. Rarey, this was recognised amongst 
the most extensive breeders of horses in this country ; and though 
cruelty was not unknown among them, any more than it is now, it 
was fully recognised as not only an unnecessary but an unsatis 
factory means of mastering the horse. 

THE WEANING AND AFTER TREATMENT OF THE FOAL. 

The usual age for weaning the foal is about the end of the 
sixth month, that time being selected because the dam is generally 
about " half gone" with her next foal, and cannot bear the double 
drain upon her system. Nor does the foal benefit much by the 
milk after this age, the teeth and stomach being quite strong 
enough to crop and digest the succulent grasses that are to be had 
from August to October, those being the months during which the 
several breeds attain the middle of their first year. If the autumn 
is a dry one, and grass is scanty, a few steamed turnips or carrots 
may be mixed with bran, and given to the foal night and morning; 
but, as a rule, unless it is to be highly forced into its growth for 
the purpose of early racing, it will require only the grass which it 
can pick up when it is turned out. Three or four foals are gene- 
rally placed together in the same paddock for company, and in this 
way they miss their dams far less than if confined by themselves. 
Care should be taken that nothing is left within their reach which 
can do injury, every fence and gate being carefully examined to 
see that no projecting bolt, nail, or rail is likely to lay hold of their 
bodies or limbs as they gallop about in their play. Foals of all 
ages are mischievous animals, and the better fed they are the 
more inclined they seem to lay hold of anything which attracts 
their notice. 

Besides the shelter of a hovel, which I have already in- 
sisted on, the foal requires throughout its first winter good feed- 
ing proportioned to its breeding and the purposes for which it is 
intended. Racing colts are allowed three or four feeds of bruised 
oats, with steamed carrots or turnips, and sometimes steamed hay; 
but the general plan is to give as much as they will eat of the best 



128 THE HORSE. 

upland hay, in its natural state, after they have finished their allow- 
ance of corn. Young stock intended to be sold as hunters and first- 
class carriage-horses are always allowed half a peck of bruised oats, 
and a few carrots and turnips will not be thrown away upon them. 
Hacks, and inferior young stock of all kinds, get through the winter 
upon hay and barley-straw, part being sometimes cut into chaff, 
and mixed with a quartern of bran, daily; and if they are very low 
in flesh, a few oats being added. During severe frosts the straw- 
yard is the best place for the foal, on account of the hardness of 
the ground in the fields, and here he will easily keep himself warm 
and dry, and he can be attended to according to his wants. Let 
the breeder, however, constantly bear in mind that a check given 
to the growth in the first winter is never afterwards entirely reco- 
vered, and that if the colt which has experienced it turns out well 
he would have been still better without it. 



CHAPTEE IX. 
THE BREAKING OP THE COLT. 

Mr. Rarey's Principles and Practice — Ordinary Method of Break- 
ing for the Saddle — Superiority of the Latter when properly 
carried out — Breaking to Harness. 

The year 1858 will ever be memorable in the annals of the 
English stable for the success of Mr. Rarey and his partner, Mr. 
G-oodenough, in extracting 25,000?. from the pockets of English 
horsemen by the promise of a new method of breaking and train- 
ing the animal which they all loved so well, but so often found not 
quite obedient to their wills. The plans by which obedience was 
to be insured were kept a profound secret, but to prove Mr. Rarey's 
power, the French coaching stallion, Stafford, the English thorough- 
bred, Cruiser, and a gray colt in the possession of Mr. Anderson, 
of Piccadilly, all notoriously vicious, were privately subdued, and 
afterwards exhibited in public. Subscribers were invited to pay 
ten guineas each, with the engagement that as soon as five hundred 
names were put down, the American would teach them in classes, 
each subscriber binding himself, under a heavy penalty, to keep 
the secret. The result was that eleven hundred ladies and gentle- 
men paid their money, and kept their promise so well that until 
the appearance of a small shilling volume, published by Messrs. 
Routledge & Co., which detailed the whole process, in the very 
words given to the American public some years before by Mr. 



MR. RAREY'S MODE OF BREAKING. 129 

Rarey, no one but the subscribers bad any certain knowledge of tbe 
secret, although it subsequently appeared that it had oozed out, 
and had been propounded in several directions as a rival scheme 
of much older date. However, it is not now my intention to at- 
tempt the discovery of the inventor of the system generally known 
as Rarey's, my sole object being to ascertain its real worth in 
breaking young stock, and in remedying or curing the vices to 
which older horses are occasionally subject. It will be seen here- 
after that though I think the plan of great service in some cases, 
I doubt its utility as an aid to the breaker ; but, having cost the 
country far more than 25,000?., and having received the approval 
of hundreds of experienced horsemen, it would ill become me to 
pass the subject over without giving reasons for the conclusions to 
which I have arrived. I was not one of the original subscribers, 
but I have seen Mr. Rarey exhibit his extraordinary powers over 
the horse more than a dozen times, so that I am in a position to 
form an opinion upon the whole process as compared with our ordi- 
nary English methods, with which I have also long been practi- 
cally acquainted. 

In his public demonstrations Mr. Rarey always commenced 
by some introductory remarks on the natural history of the horse, 
in which there was nothing to impress the auditor with any great 
respect for his powers. At the end of this act, which was evi- 
dently intended to kill time, we were put in possession of the 
three fundamental principles of the new theory of the proper 
management of the horse, namely : — 

First, " That he is so constituted by nature that he will not offer 
resistance to any demand made of him which he fully compre- 
hends, if made in a way consistent with the laws of his nature." 

Secondly, " That he has no consciousness of his strength beyond 
his experience, and can be handled according to our will without 
force." 

Thirdly, " That we can, in compliance with the laws of his na- 
ture, by which he examines all things new to him, take any object, 
however frightful, around, over, or on him, that does not inflict 
pain, without causing him to fear." 

No one will, I believe, dispute the first two of these principles, 
which have certainly nothing very novel in them. The third, 
when promulgated, was more opposed to our experience, and a de- 
monstration of its truth was naturally enough required before it 
was accepted. To comply with this demand horse after horse was 
submitted to an exhausting and painful proof, which I shall pre- 
sently describe, and then certainly anything which did not inflict 
pain was borne without apparently producing fear. This, there- 
fore, was proving the letter of the third principle ; but was the 
spirit of it established ? The words just quoted, if they mean 

I 



130 THE HORSE. 

anything, signify that is only necessary to allow a horse to exa- 
mine the drum and he will show no fear of it. But is this the 
real fact? I trow not. Before a high-couraged horse will allow 
a drum to be beaten on his back he must either submit to a long 
course of training under the old system, or he must go through 
the royal road of Mr. Barey, of which nothing whatever is said 
in the three principles alluded to. Take aD ordinary hunter after 
he is exhausted by a long run, and he will bear the noise of a 
drum, or any other alarming agent, to which he would, when fresh 
and active, show the greatest objection. Why, then, should we 
be astonished that a shorter method of exhausting the nervous 
energy should have the same effect, even if it is shown in a still 
more remarkable manner, as we shall presently see it is ? As far, 
therefore, as Mr. Barey's principles are concerned I have little to 
say against them, except that if the third is meant to apply to the 
exhibition of the drum beaten on the backs of his several subjects, 
it is not very ingenuous in the language which is used. 

Before Mr. Barey came to England he had, as I have 
already remarked, published in America a little pamphlet which 
described his several plans for driving a colt from pasture; — driv- 
ing into a stable and haltering, and the kind of halter used, &c. 
It also contained an account of an experiment with a robe, show- 
ing that the horse, as soon as he discovers by his senses that an 
object has no power or will to hurt him, goes up to it, and soon 
becomes regardless of its presence. All these remarks, however, 
have no interest for my readers, as they are of no utility whatever, 
and the sole remaining contents of the pages which were published 
by Messrs Boutledge, and received with so much interest in this 
country, were the directions for throwing the horse, and afterwards 
handling, or " gentling" him, as the American operator calls the 
stroking the limbs, which he always puts into practice after the 
horse is down. If this little book had been published a few months 
earlier it would have entirely destroyed the pecuniary prospects 
of the partners, but coming late as it did, it prevented the pay- 
ment of any more ten guinea subscriptions, and reduced the charge 
for the sight of the process to guinea and half-guinea tickets for 
seats at the Alhambra. I shall, therefore, proceed to describe the 
casting process, as witnessed by myself, and then examine into its 
nature and effect upon the horse, whether in breaking or taming 
him. 

The apparatus which is required is, first of all, an ordinary 
snaffle or straight bit in the mouth, without which nothing could 
be done with any vicious horse; and if any animal is to be " Ba- 
reyfied," the preliminary operation is to get this into the mouth. 
Stafford was brought to Mr. Barey with the aid of guide-ropes, 
which were fastened to his head and held by grooms on each side 



> 

THE LEG STKAP. 131 

En him, therefore, this first essential point was accomplished. 
Cruiser also had a halter, strengthened with iron, and in him also 
there was a means of laying hold of the head, which was eagerly 
seized by the operator. The plan adopted in his case was to fix 
an iron staple to the door-post, and then running through this a 
strong leather strap, to which a spring hook was attached, the op- 
portunity was seized when the horse came open-mouthed to the 
door, and he was securely laid hold of and drawn up to the staple, 
so as to compel him to allow the introduction of a bit. The gray 
colt at Mr. Anderson's was bitted ; but the zebra was loose in his 
cage, and I do not at all know how the gag in which he was ex- 
hibited was forced into his mouth, but I believe it was effected 
by a rope thrown round his neck and drawn up to the bars of his 
cage. 

The second part of the apparatus is the leg-strap for the 
near fore leg, being very similar to a stirrup-leather, which, with 
the addition of a strong loop, can be made to answer the same 
purpose very well. Before applying this strap, which at once 
makes the horse harmless for offence, he must be rendered ap- 
proachable, which, in ordinary animals, is effected merely with 
the aid of the bridle. In Stafford, however, as I before remarked, 
guide-ropes were used; and in the case of Cruiser, he was enticed 
up to a wagon loaded with hay, under which was Mr. Rarey, and 
through the wheel of which this leg-strap was quietly and cau- 




RAREY'S LEO STRAP. NO. 1. 

tiously buckled on his leg. As soon as this is done the horse is 
innocent of all mischief except with his teeth, for he cannot kick 
on three legs, and even his mouth may be kept away from the 
operator by drawing on the off rein. To bring him speedily to 
submit to the power of the operator, the other leg must also be 
confined, which is effected by first buckling on a surcingle, as re- 
presented in the last engraving, and then catching the off fetlock 
in the running noose of leg-strap No. 2, which is made in the an- 
nexed form. Provided with this second strap in his pocket, and hav- 
ing already applied the leg-strap No. 1, and the surcingle as shown 



132 



THE HORSE. 




MR. rarey's strap. No. 2. 



above, the subject under manipulation is either induced to drop 
his off foot into the noose, or it is slipped round his ankle, while 
the off rein is held by the other hand to keep the teeth off the 
operator. As soon as this loop is firmly drawn round the leg, the 




CRUISER WITH THE LEO STRAP AND SURCINGLE ON. 

other end is slipped through the surcingle under the belly, and 



CRUISER IN THE POWER OF HIS MASTER. 



133 



entire control of the horse is only a work of time. The arrange- 
ment of these straps is well shown in the engraving, where Crui- 
ser is sketched ready for the final struggle. Up to this time, almost 




CRUISER IN THE POWER OF HIS MASTER. 



every horse will be tolerably quiet and unresisting, some squeal- 
ing when any approach is made to their elbows to tighten the sur- 
cingle, and others when the strap No. 2 is slipped through it. Few 
however, plunge much ; and if they are made to hop on three legs, 
they are able to go on for so long a time, without producing the neces- 
sary amount of fatigue, that the operator would be tired before his 
pupil. It is at this stage — that is to say, with the use of the leg- 
strap No. 1 — that the predecessors of Mr. Earey stopped, and they 
consequently failed to gain the absolute control which he has in- 
variably obtained with the slight, but really important, additions 
which he has made, and which he uses in the ingenious manner 
which I shall now describe. It may be observed that, with a vio- 
lent horse, it is always better to let him feel his want of power for 
doing mischief with the near fore leg strapped up, and the slight 
degree of fatigue which a few minutes' hopping will produce, be- 
1?, 



134 



THE HOUSE. 



fore the second strap is called into play, especially if the operator 
has not acquired great skill in the use of the apparatus. When 
this is done, and the second strap is applied, and slipped through 
the surcingle, as shown at page 133, taking care to put a stout 
glove on the right hand, the left rein is taken in the left hand, and 
gently jerked — using, if necessary, the usual slight stimulus with 
the tongue, to make the horse move, which he can only do by 




THE HORSE BOUNDING ON HIS HIND LEGS. 



raising the off fore leg off the ground in the action known as hop- 
ping. The moment this begins, the right hand firmly draws the 
off leg up to the surcingle, and keeps it there, when the horse must 
either bound into the air on his hind legs, or he must go down on 
the ground, supported from falling on his side in the attitude of 
kneeling. To avoid mischief, therefore, the loose box or yard 
where the operation is carried on should be thickly bedded with 
straw; for no knee-caps are stout enough to protect the joints from 
injury on hard ground; nor, if they escape being bruised, will the 
shock to the body on falling be at all safe. Even straw can hardly 
be relied on, if the floor beneath is of brick, stone, pebbles, or 
hard natural soil; for it is apt to give way during the struggles of 



THE HORSE ON HIS KNEES. 



135 



the horse, and allow the knees to reach it without the intended 
protection. When, therefore, there is no tanned riding-school, or 
other similar surface, at command, a good solid bed of manure 
(which is always to be had wherever horses are) should be spread 
a foot thick at least, and over this clean straw may be laid. To 
return to the subject of the operation, whom we left with the alter- 
native of bounding in the air on his hind legs, or falling on his 
knees in the annexed attitude, the chief art in managing this part 
of the process is to keep firm hold of the strap attached to the off 
leg close to the surcingle ; the hand being protected by the glove, 
can easily prevent it from slipping through during the struggles 
of the horse, and at the same time serves as a point tVappui for 
the operator, so that he can follow the movements of the bounding 
animal in whatever direction he may progress. The operator must 
on no account attempt to stand away from his patient, nor must he 
advance before the girth-place ; but keeping close to this, he is in 




THE HORSE ON HIS KNEES, ABOUT TO FALL ON HIS SIDE. 

no danger, provided he has the sense and the ability to ,dve way 
if th ■ horse should throw himself down towards his side. The 



136 THE HORSE. 

rein, being still held in the left hand, prevents the horse falling 
away from the operator, and is also used by him as a means of 
guiding the animal, if he happens to progress in a direction which 
is cot desired. Nothing else is to be attempted till the horse has 
quite exhausted all his energies, which those possessed of high 
courage will soon do; but low-bred animals are very apt to turn 
sulky, and, refusing to plunge, remain on their knees, in spice of 
every kind of stimulus which can be given them short of severe 
punishment with the whip, which is to be avoided, as opposed 
to the principles on which the whole process is founded. By 
taking time with these brutes, they may always be made to tire 
themselves, for the kneeling position is very irksome to them, 
and the most stubborn will give a plunge now and then to re- 
lieve themselves, though they will not follow up one with another 
as speedily as a thorough-bred. Sooner or later (the time vary- 
ing from ten minutes to two or three hours), the tail begins to 
tremble, the flanks heave, and a profuse perspiration breaks out, 
which are signs that the horse of himself desires the recumbent 
position, and will lie down of his own accord, if not pulled over 
by the right hand of the operator. Mr. Rarey, in his public exhi- 
bitions, has never, so far as I am aware, waited for this to take 
place, but, perhaps to prevent wearying his audience, has always 
pulled his patient over on his side as soon as he could accomplish 
the feat. In many cases, this impatience has led to a partial 
failure ; the horse, not being tired out, has refused to submit, and 
it has only been after repeating the process once or twice that com- 
plete control has been obtained. Those gentlemen, therefore, who 
wish to try the experiment for themselves, will do well to avoid 
any risk of a repetition, which they may not be able to manage 
with the dexterity of the great American tamer. Le* them wait 
till the horse is thoroughly tired, and then only interfere to such 
an extent as to keep him leaning towards their r'de, by laying hold 
of the right rein instead of the left, as shown in the engraving at 
page 134; and drawing the head away from themselves. Mr. 
Rarey generally used the right hand for this purpose, when he 
wished to throw his patient before he was exhausted, because he 
could in that way employ more force ; and, at the same time, his 
dexterity was such, that, if a bound was made, he was always 
ready to hold the strap attached to the off foot before the horse 
could get fairly on his hind legs. In whichever way the task is 
accomplished, the effect is apparently the same — the horse lies ex- 
tended on his side, panting and sweating, in the most exhausted 
condition ; but, of course, showing more of these symptoms of 
distress the longer he has been kept resisting the restraints put 
upon him. Now comes the test of the practical ability of the ope- 
rator ; for whereas before he had only plain directions to carry out, 



HINTS TO OPERATORS. 137 

he has at this stage to judge how far his efforts are successful If 
he takes off the straps too soon, the patient is patient no longer, 
but rises rapidly, and perhaps rewards him by planting a severe 
blow on his ribs. It is here that Mr. Rarey displayed his greal 
skill to perfection. Apparently by intuition, he knew when his 
pupil was mastered; but, as he was always ready to explain, it wa. 
really by two symptoms that he judged whether he had gained tin 
mastery or not. One of these was the expression of the eye, whicl 
it would be difficult to describe, and which experience alone could 
adequately convey to those who wish to understand it; but the 
other, being readily tested, is within the reach of every one. This 
consists in the entire flaccidity of the muscles of the neck and 
limbs; and until this is ascertained to have been obtained, tht 
straps should not be entirely removed. Mr. Rarey's plan of pro- 
ceeding at this stage was the following. A second or two after tht 
horse went down, he let him raise his head, and then dragged it 
down again to the ground by the mane. On repeating this once, 
twice, or thrice, the animal would give in as far as that part was 
concerned ; and being rewarded with a pat of the hand, the head 
remained still on the ground, and that part was " gentled." Next 
removing the leg straps, the fore legs were separately gently 
rubbed downwards; and on being lifted, and let fall, as if dead, 
they also were passed as in a similar satisfactory state. The ope- 
rator then going round by the back, proceeded to gentle the hind 
limbs; and though, in vicious horses, he sometimes had narrow 
escapes of being kicked, yet by his great activity and clever mode 
of seizing his opportunity, he always succeeded in keeping out of 
harm's way. Finally, the operator passed in front of the legs, and 
performed all the usual " clap-traps" of putting his head between 
them, knocking the hind and fore shoes together, standing on the 
body, &c. While in this state, the horse lies in the attitude and 
with the expression which is very well represented in the accom- 
panying sketch, and there he will gladly lie as long as he is per- 
mitted to do so. But he is not to be allowed to recruit his powers ; 
and as soon as he had gone through the tricks which I have 
described, Mr. Rarey made him rise, and then showed that the 
power which he had gained was not lost as soon as the animal stood 
on his legs again. Calling for a saddle, it was in every case shown 
to the horse, and put first on his head, then on his neck, and finally 
in its proper place. The animal then always submitted to be 
mounted, and even allowed the dangerous plan recommended and 
adopted by Mr. Rarey, of standing close to the hind-quarter while 
putting the foot in the stirrup, to be carried out without kicking, 
which before the " Rareyfication" most of the vicious brutes ope- 
rated on in public would probably have done. 

By this plan, it is indisputable that any active man, of good 
12* 



138 



THE HORSE. 




THE HORSE TAMED. 



temper, but possessed of firmness and courage, and accustomed to 
deal with horses, may gain such a control over even the most 
vicious, that he can do what he likes with them in-doors. No one 
who has examined into the matter can doubt Mr. Rarey's power, 
nor can he refuse him the merit of improving upon the old system 
of controlling the horse, by the addition of the second leg strap, 
which adds so much to the power of the human arm, that the most 
violent and muscular horse has no chance whatever. The secret 
lies in two essential features ; first, that the horse must never be 
coerced or resisted unless the man is certain of success in control- 
ling him ; and, secondly, that when the former is thoroughly con- 
vinced of his powerless condition, and his muscles are tired out, 
the latter interferes and relieves him of his trammels, " gentles" 
him, gives him kind words, and at length encourages him to rise. 
The effect is marvellous — the most vicious brute, who would pre- 
viously tear any man to pieces, after he is thus first coerced, and 
then " gentled" and relieved, appears to grow fond of his master, 
and follows him about like a dog. Clearly, therefore, Mr. Rarey 
may be considered as having been eminently successful in pro- 
pounding a system of horse-taming ; but it by no means follows 
that his process is equally, or even at all, useful in horse-breaking. 



RAREY'S METHOD. 139 

There are other questions, also, which remain to be con- 
sidered in relation to the method which I have described. First, 
is it permanent quoad the individual who has carried it out? 
Secondly, does the vicious horse who has been subdued and 
"gentled" by one man, show the same absence of vice towards 
others ? And thirdly, is he injured in any way by the operation? 
On the first of these points there appears to be strong evidence 
that, if the operator gives occasionally a very slight reminder of 
his powers, the effect of one, two, or three lessons, repeated at 
short intervals, will continue for at least a year or two. There are 
numerous instances which have come to my knowledge of horses 
resuming their vicious habits within two or three months of re- 
ceiving such a lesson from Mr. Rarey, that they would allow him 
to do what he liked with them ; but in the case of the savage 
Cruiser, there is reason to believe that he never once rebelled 
against his master from the time that he first gave in. In his case, 
however, the operation was repeated hundreds of times ; and there- 
fore it does not go so far as I have stated to be the rule, but others 
might be adduced which keep strictly within it ; and there are 
also private individuals who have practised on horses which have 
never been exhibited in public who have kept up their control 
unimpaired. The evidence in favor of the lasting nature of the con- 
trolling power, when exercised by the operator himself, is too strong 
to be gainsaid : and the first question may, I think, be safely 
answered in the affirmative. But in reference to the second, the 
evidence is all the other way; and on putting Cruiser into the 
witness-box he would tell us that he has several times turned against 
his groom, and put his life in danger. Still, it must be remembered 
that, prior to his treatment by " Rareyfication," no man dared enter 
his box ; and on comparing his two states, before and afterwards, 
it may be truly said, that though not absolutely cured of his vicious 
propensities, he is comparatively so. Probably the same conclusion 
may be arrived at in those cases which are related of relapses from 
virtue to vice; but, at all events, such instances are numerous 
enough, and attested in a manner so respectable, that every pos- 
sessor of a coerced horse should be always on his guard. The last 
question is somewhat difficult to answer, because the injury, if real, 
is not apparent. The chief means of testing the effect is on the 
powers of race-horses, several of which have felt Mr. Rarey's 
straps, and been controlled by his master hand. Now, I believe 
there is no instance of a horse which has gone through the opera- 
tion doing any good subsequently on the turf. All have shown 
either a want of speed or heart ; and whatever has been the cause 
of this, they have run behind those animals whose form was con- 
sidered by good judges to have been previously inferior to them 
Thus, Mr. Merry's Miss Pinch, when she first appeared, beat sev 



140 THE HORSE. 

eral fields of first class two-year-olds ; and it was generally believed, 
when she afterwards was beaten, that it was only because her 
temper was so bad. Yet when this defect was so far remedied by 
the process I am considering, that Mr. M. Dawson could ride her 
constantly as a hack without much inconvenience, she never re- 
covered her racing powers, and neither in private (as I have been 
informed), nor in public, certainly, did she ever exhibit any 
approach to her former speed. 

On the whole, therefore, it may fairly be concluded that 
Mr. Karey's plans are well adapted for the control of vicious horses, 
supposing they are not subsequently wanted for the turf, in which 
case the utility of the process is very questionable. As, however, 
all our horses are not vicious, and as by the casting and gentling 
nothing more is effected than a general control, it remains to be 
considered how far this is useful in breaking colts for general pur- 
poses. My own belief is that it acts by producing in the horse a 
compound feeling of fear and gratitude, the former being the re- 
sult of his fruitless efforts to get rid of the controlling hand of 
man, and the latter being established from finding that hand re- 
lieve him of his straps and then caress and " gentle" him. If, 
therefore, any horse, even without vice, is required to exhibit to 
his master or mistress any relations more intimate than those which 
are usually practised in this country, great advantage will result 
from the establishment of this fear and gratitude. With the ex- 
ception, however, of cavalry and circus horses, we generally con- 
tent ourselves with that amount of intercourse which is acquired 
in the saddle, and we do not want our hacks to exhibit tricks, nor 
do we require them to follow us about at liberty like our dogs. It 
has been attempted to show that this particular plan gets rid of a 
great deal of cruelty to the horse, but this is altogether unfounded, 
for long before the great American trainer made his appearance, 
writers on the horse had denounced its use, and though many 
cruelly severe breakers and grooms existed, as they still exist, yet 
they were exceptions to the general rule. Cavalry horses, especially 
when on service, are required to submit to the control of the men 
in many ways which are never in demand for hacking or hunting, 
and the mere power of compelling the horse to lie down and re- 
main on the ground is worth a great deal of trouble to acquire. 
As far as they are concerned, I think the use of Mr. Rarey's 
straps most valuable ; and it must be remembered that this was all 
that the Canadian military authorities certified in their recom- 
mendations which Mr. Rarey brought with him across the Atlantic. 
The clever management of his partner, Mr. Goodenough, and the 
profound secrecy maintained for so long, carried the public away 
far beyond this, and, as in the fable of the fox who had lost his 
tail, all those who had spent their ten guineas were anxious to 



ORDINARY ENGLISH METHOD. 141 

place their friends in the same predicament. This is the only way 
in which I can account for the extraordinary conclusions to which 
so many practised horsemen arrived in 1858. Since that time, it 
is true, the fashion has subsided, and a more temperate view has 
been taken, the general opinion of good judges being, I believe, 
pretty much in accordance with those which I have always held 
publicly and privately, and which I have here endeavored to con- 
vey to my readers. 

Before proceeding to inquire into the merits of Mr. Ka- 
rey's plan as compared with our own mode of breaking, it will be 
well to describe what the latter is, and then ascertain which is the 
best mode of carrying out our object. No horseman in this country 
would dream of using the animal he intends to ride or drive with- 
out the control of a bit, and although he may aid this powerful 
instrument with his voice, his leg, his whip, or his spur, yet it 
always has been, and still is, the chief agent in the management of 
the horse. Again, no colt is to be considered as broken until his 
rider or driver has altered his paces, and given him such an action 
in the walk, trot, canter, and gallop, or in some two or three of 
these paces, that he has become pleasant and safe. Now the plans 
which I have just described do not effect either of these objects, 
indeed their tendency is rather to interfere with the making of a 
good mouth, for the bit will sometimes cut the angles of the lips, 
and in this way tend to make it afterwards dull. I do not mean to 
assert that this is necessarily carried far enough by Mr. Rarey to 
make his plan objectionable on that account, but merely that if 
anything is done towards breaking a colt, it is injurious rather than 
beneficial, with the single exception of the establishment of a 
mental control, which, as I shall presently show, is not wanted in 
more than one or two per thousand of our horses. 

THE ORDINARY ENGLISH METHOD OF BREAKING EOR THE 
SADDLE. 

In this country the breaker of the hack is not only supposed 
to produce in his pupil what is called a good " mouth," but also to 
teach him the use of his legs, so as to give a pleasant feel to his 
rider in the walk, trot, and gallop, and in the canter, where spe- 
cially required. The racehorse is only " mouthed" and " backed," 
his subsequent education being confided to the trainer ; and the 
hunter, in addition to these developments, is taught to get over 
the various fences which he is likely to meet with, in a clever 
manner. Each class must, therefore, go through the same pre- 
liminary process, which consists in producing a good mouth, and 
in making the colt bear his rider patiently in the saddle. To effect 
these objects when the colt is running at large he must be caught 
and haltered, and I shall now proceed to show how the matter Is 



142 



THE HORSE. 



effected ah initio. In doing this it will be necessary to examine 
into the best apparatus for carrying it out. 

The halter, which in this country is generally first used, is 
the ordinary one, made of hemp-webbing, for the head, with a run- 
ning eye in the back of the nose-piece, in which runs a stout rope 
attached to the head. Thorough-bred colts are always made to 
carry a light leather head-stall from the end of their first year, 
and so, indeed, are all well-bred yearlings of any value. The large 
mass of colts run unhaltered till they are to be broken, which is 
generally commenced when they are three-year-olds. Ponies and 
small hacks are then often taken into use, the latter being quietly 
ridden by the breeder for his own purposes till they are four or 
five years old, when they are sold. Mr. Rarey recommends for all 




MR. RARET'S HALTER OR BRIDLE TOR COLTS. 



RAREY'S METHOD. 143 

purposes a eathern halter, made like an ordinary head-stall, but 
rather lighter. This is at once put on the colt, and by buckling 
a leading-strap to the nose-band, either before or behind, anything 
may be done which is required, short of mounting. Two small 
billets and buckles attach any bit which may be selected to the 
rings which connect the cheek pieces to the nose-band, and thus 
the halter is converted into a very useful breaking bridle. It 
wants, however, the stifT padded nose-band of the cavesson, but 
this is only required with very violent and determined colts. The 
above engraving represents Mr. Rarey's halter-bridle, with his 
ordinary breaking bit. 

The bit which is usually employed in England for colts is a 
heavy smooth snaffle, with a tongue-piece and keys depending from 
its central link. For racing colts a very excellent bit has lately 
been extensively introduced, consisting in a mere smooth ring of 
iron, with a loop on the upper part for attachment to the head- 
stall, in the same way as in Mr. Rarey's bridle. In front of this 
loop the ring is introduced into the mouth, and the back of the 
circle takes the leading rein, which is thus allowed to slip on either 
side, and keep a secure hold of the jaw, however much the colt 
may pull at it. I have a dislike to the snaffle for colts, because I 
have found it constantly pressing on one corner of the mouth more 
than the other, the animal putting his head on one side, and lean- 
ing upon that half of the mouthpiece, so as to relieve each side of 
the jaw alternately, instead of allowing the two 'divisions of the 
snaffle to bear equally on the angles of the mouth. I much prefer 
a bit made with an unjointed mouthpiece, curved in a segment of a 
circle, with the usual tongue-piece and keys attached to the middle by 
a roller. This curved mouthpiece should have smooth rings turned 
upon it, which will prevent the horse from rubbing his lips from 
side to side, and tend to form a very pleasant and delicate mouth. 
I have known it used with great success in breaking hundreds of 
colts, and I have myself found its advantages in a great number 
of horses, young as well as old. These, together with a martin- 
gale, buckling on to the bit, are all that are required for making 
the mouth. 

In addition to the apparatus for this part of the colt's educa- 
tion, arrangements must also be made for accustoming him to bear 
the weight of the rider, and for attaching the bit to some part of 
the body. In commencing the breaking it is customary to put on 
merely a roller with a leathern surcingle over it, kept in its place 
by a crupper, which, for facility of putting on, should have a buckle 
on one side. In front of the surcingle, on each side, two buckles are 
stitched, serving to attach the reins either high up, or even crossed 
over the withers, or low down, or sometimes both high and low. 
Until within the last thirty or forty years, what is called a dumb 



144 THE HORSE. 

jockey was always attached to the roller, but this is generally now 
dispensed with, though with the elastic reins introduced by Mr. 
Blackwell I think it may be made very useful. Lastly, to the 
crupper long hanging straps are attached, so as to accustom the 
young animal to the pressure of the coat or habit. Provided with 
this apparatus, and with a long leading rein of webbing, the breaker 
is prepared to subdue the wildest colt. 

The first thing to be done is to get a halter or headstall 
on, which is only to be effected either in a stable or similar enclosed 
place, or among a herd of other horses, when the colt is so closely 
packed in that he cannot move. Every one must have seen the 
Welsh and Irish drovers rush into the middle of a herd, and seiz- 
ing an unbroken colt round the neck, hold him till a halter is 
slipped over his head. The same plan greatly facilitates the hal- 
tering of any colt; but a couple of steady horses are quite enough 
to keep a colt steady in any building or small yard. The breaker 
arranges so as to have one on each side, and then going up between 
them, he has the colt held for him while he very slowly and quietly 
insinuates his hand, with the head of the halter in it, over the 
neck, just behind the ears. With a little dexterity, this is soon 
done, and then the nose-band being slipped into its place, a good 
hold can be secured. Every horseman must, however, agree with 
Mr. Rarey, that the rope halter with a running noose is most im- 
proper, and that a leathern headstall should always be chosen. It 
is quite true, that a single turn of the cord of the halter into a 
half-hitch prevents all mischief, and this is done by good breakers; 
but the headstall or cavesson should be put on as soon as possible, 
and the former may be worn constantly till the breaking is com- 
plete. With the leading-rein attached to the nose-band, the breaker 
can now restrain the colt from getting away ; and, by kind words 
and gentle treatment, the young animal soon becomes accustomed 
to his presence, and will allow him to approach and handle him all 
over. When this is borne easily, he may be led out about the 
fields, and green lanes if there are any; but while he continues to 
resent the approach of moving objects by violent bounds, nothing 
should be put in his mouth out-of-doors. If he is very wild and 
ungovernable, he may be made to trot gently round and round in 
a circle on some soft ground, the breaker at first following him up, 
but soon being enabled to "longe" him while standing in the cen- 
tre. After a day or two, the breaking-bit already described may 
be slipped into his mouth, and attached in the way shown in the 
engraving at page 142. It should, however, only be allowed to 
hang there without reins at first, and it may either be kept on 
while the colt is being led about, or for an hour or two daily while 
in the stable. In this way the jaw and lips become accustomed to 
the pressure cf the bit, and lose the painful sensation which it at 



BREAKING— BAUCHER'S METHOD. 145 

first occasions. If, on the other hand, the reins are at once buckled 
on, and are then strained tightly back to the surcingle, or dumb- 
jockey, the delicate mucous membrane becomes sore, and even 
ulcerated, and the foundation is laid for that dull, unyielding 
mouth which is so objectionable on every account. 

It should never be forgotten, that the mouth is the foun- 
dation upon which all the subsequent proceedings are to be con- 
ducted. A horse may naturally have fine action, and he may be 
so framed that, if he were properly bitted, he would be a delight- 
ful hack or hunter ; but if his mouth is spoiled in breaking, his 
fine action is thrown away, because it cannot be regulated and 
controlled by such a trifling exercise of strength in the hand and 
arm as is consistent with riding for pleasure. Many a pulling 
brute has won a steeplechase, or shown to advantage in the hunt- 
ing-field, with a professional " up," which would not be ridden for 
ten minutes by an amateur who could afford to make his own selec- 
tion. Hence, the first thiug which the breaker has to set about 
is the formation of a good mouth ; and this is exactly what Mr. 
Rarey's plans fail to provide, and, indeed, it is what they interfere 
with in a great degree, as I have observed at page 143. Well, 
then, let us examine into the received mode of obtaining a good 
mouth in England. M. Baucher has carried the European prin- 
ciples of producing it to a very high degree, and it will be neces- 
sary to allude to his plans also; but, on the whole, I cannot but 
think them superfluous for ordinary purposes, and should be per- 
fectly content with a horse broken in the best English methods, 
which now combine the "supplings" of the great French breaker 
with the old dead pressure adopted in the methods of our ances- 
tors. The difference between the two is mainly this, that we in 
England content ourselves with confining the head by the reins in 
a position which, while it does not compel the horse to lean upon 
his bit, yet makes him try to avoid its pressure by bending his 
neck, and thus rendering its muscles supple. M. Baucher, on the 
contrary, prefers that the whole of this suppling shall be per- 
formed by the pressure of the breaker's hand ; and, doubtless, his 
is the best plan, if the man employed is competent to the task, 
and the time thus devoted can be afforded. It takes a fortnight 
or three weeks to " make " a horse's mouth, so far as to fit him to 
bear the hands of his rider, in either way; but as less than two 
hours a day during that time will not suffice, and as in the one 
case the horse supples himself, while in the other a man must 
effect the change, M. Baucher's method costs twenty-eight hours 
of skilled labor, -in addition to subsequent breaking, and it is there- 
fore very expensive. The course of proceedings which good Eng- 
lish breakers now adopt is as follows. The bit having been allowed 
for some days to remain in the mouth without reins, as already de- 
13 k 



146 THE HORSE. 

scribed, the breaker next proceeds to attach a rein to it in the 
ordinary way, and to buckle this loosely to the surcingle or dumb- 
jockey, whichever he may employ. Mr. Blackwell's india-rubber 
reins are thought very highly of by some for this purpose ; but, as 
far as I have tried them, I prefer plain leather, because I object to 
constant pressure, however slight, upon the mouth. A drop of 
water falling constantly and regularly upon a stone will wear it 
away sooner than the same quantity dashed at once upon it; and, in 
the same manner, permanent gentle pressure upon the mouth is more 
irksome than a more severe occasional pull. The great art consists 
in shortening the reins so gradually, that the pressure can always be 
avoided by bending the neck, and this the horse soon learns to do; 
and thus, at one and the same time, he gains control over his mus- 
cles, and inures his jaws and lips to the bit. It is generally neces- 
sary, while the "bitting" is going on, whether in the stable or at 
exercise, to fix the head down by a martingale, buckled to each side 
of the bit; for without this the horse, in his struggles to get rid of hia 
restraints, will often toss his head so high as to do himself a serious 
injury. If the mouthing is conducted in the stable, the horse is either 
put into a loose-box (which is the best plan), or he is turned round 
in his stall, and kept in that position by buckling the ordinary pillar 
reins to each side of the bit. At first, the reins should hardly 
confine the head at all beyond the position in which it is naturally 
carried when the horse is excited ; but each day a hole or two may 
be taken up, until such pressure is made, that the horse has a ten- 
dency to relieve his neck and shoulders by advancing his fore legs 
and rounding his neck. The best plan is to put on the breaking 
tackle for an hour in the stable, then loose the reins for a quarter 
of an hour ; after which the colt may be led out for his regular 
daily exercise, and may be " longed" with the reins buckled more 
or less tightly, according to the experience of the breaker and the 
condition of the mouth. In most cases, the process is hurried far 
too much ; the breaker contracts to do all that is required for a 
given sum, varying from one guinea to three, and it is his object 
to spend as little time over each of his pupils as will serve to make 
them barely rideable. This is objectionable in principle, though 
it is very difficult to know how to improve upon it without running 
the risk of extortion ; but when a colt is to be broken for the use of 
the owner, or any of his family, he will do well to see that plenty 
of time is devoted to the formation of the mouth, and this I have 
already said should extend to a fortnight. If the breeder has a 
lot of colts which are to be placed in the breaker's hands, the latter 
can, with the assistance of a few lads, go on with a dozen at the 
same time, and in that way too great an outlay of money is avoided; 
but if there is only one in his hands, he can hardly do justice to 
his employer at the ordinary rate Hitherto I have only alluded 



BREAKING. 147 

to longeing, without describing it or alluding to the object with 
which it is adopted. I must now, however, say something more 
about it, because in this stage it becomes an important element of 
success. It may be remembered, that I have laid down a fortnight 
as the least interval which should elapse from the commencement 
of breaking before the colt is fit to be backed with safety to the 
breaker or his assistant. Not that he may not be ridden in much 
less time than this, but that if he is, it will be at the expense of 
his mouth. Longeing is a means of at once giving exercise in a 
short space of time, and also of accustoming the colt to use his 
limbs while some degree of pressure is made on the mouth by the 
bit, without giving himself pain from moving the head. Now, 
the act of keeping this part still necessitates an even and smooth 
style of going, and so all things work together to produce the 
pleasant feel which is given to the rider by a perfect hack. A 
good mouth may be acquired in the stable, but it is soon spoiled 
out-of-doors, either by longeing in a hurried manner, or by the bad 
hands of the rider, whether breaker or subsequent user. To keep 
it. great care is required at every stage of breaking; and none but 
a man possessed of head, temper, seat, and hands can finish a colt 
as he should be turned out. Longeing, therefore, I hold to be a 
most important part of the art of breaking ; and its absence from 
Mr. Rarey's principles and practice shows that he has taken the 
dull pulling mouth of the American horse as his model, and not 
the beautifully yielding, yet steady one of the English hack. In 
the United States, where Mr. Rarey acquired his extraordinary 
powers, riding is little practised ; and those horses which are used 
have leathern mouths, and are ridden with three legs, rather than 
with a pair of legs and a pair of hands, as with us. We need not, 
therefore, be surprised that he has altogether overlooked the im- 
portance of acquiring a fine mouth, and has regarded the mere 
control over the horse, in some way or other, no matter how, as 
the sole object to be desired in breaking. At length, when the 
breaker is satisfied that the colt has gained the power over his 
limbs at all paces, which he will have gradually given him in his 
daily longes, by increasing the tightness of the reins and accele- 
rating the pace, (taking care to change the directions of the cir- 
cles,) he thinks it time to give his pupil the finishing lessons, 
which can only be done in the saddle. Before mounting, however, 
he is enabled to teach the colt the meaning of each pressure of the 
rein, which at first is utterly unintelligible. By taking both in 
each hand, and pressing backwards, he causes him to back ; and 
by drawing them forward, to proceed in that direction. The right 
hand moved to the right, makes the colt move his head, and after- 
wards his body, towards that side, and vice versa with the left 
hand. In this way, all is prepared for the mounting, which should 



148 THE HORSE. 

be first attempted when the colt is somewhat tired after a long and 
steady longe. The breaker should, during the last week's daily 
exercise, put on a saddle instead of a roller and surcingle, keeping 
it in its place by loose girths and a crupper. Every day he should 
bear occasionally upon the stirrups, smacking them against the 
saddle, and thus accustoming the colt to noises, and also to pres- 
sure on his back. When all is ready, he has only to put his foot 
in the stirrup, standing with his back to the shoulder, and then, 
after partially rising two or three times, and coming down again, 
he finally plants himself firmly in the saddle. Most careful break- 
ers have a roll of cloth buckled firmly in front of their saddles ; 
and with this precaution, even if the colt bucks or kicks, it is 
almost impossible for him to dislodge them. When thus mounted, 
the breaker should be in no hurry, but let the colt get accustomed 
to the intruder. Let him wait till the pupil has somewhat reco- 
vered from the shock, and then only let him urge him forward at 
as slow a pace as he likes. If all has been conducted well through- 
out the preliminary stages, and the colt is good-tempered, he will 
walk away quietly enough, and generally no trouble will be given 
for a day or two ; when, probably, there will be some slight fight, 
which may be either in causing the pupil to go where he does not 
want to go, or in making him face some object which frightens 
him. At first, neither whip nor spur should be used, for the ob- 
ject of neither is understood ; and if the colt will not readily 
move forward, he should be led or driven by an assistant, and not 
whipped or spurred by his rider. In process of time, however, he 
is made gradually to understand these signs by the tact of the 
breaker; and then if he offends, he must be punished accordingly, 
but it must always be remembered that the fault must be met im- 
mediately, or not at all. 

The amusing and experienced author of " The Horse and 
his Rider" has drawn attention to the misconception of the differ- 
ences in character between a wild horse and a tame one, which is 
entertained in this country. He says : " It is generally conceived 
that in the difficulty of sticking on to the back of a horse there 
exist three degrees of comparison, namely : 

" 1. That it is rather difficult to ride a horse that has been 
broken in. 

" 2. That it is exceedingly difficult to ride a tame one that has 
not been broken in. 

" 3. That it must be almost impossible to mount and ride a wild 
horse just caught, that has never been broken in. 

" We will, however, humbly venture to assert that, in certain 
instances, the three steps of this little ladder might be reversed. 

"1. In a state of nature the horse is such a zealous advocate of 
our popular principle of 'self-government/ he is so desirous to 



i 



BREAKING. 149 

maintain his ' independence/ that although he will allow almost 
any quadruped, even wolves and lions, to approach within a certain 
distance, yet the moment he sees a man, though on horseback, he 
instinctively turns his tail towards him, and, when followed, gal- 
lops away. 

" If, consequently, by the triumph of reason over instinct, he be 
caught, saddled, and if all of a sudden, to his vast astonishment, 
he finds sitting astride his back, with a cigar in his mouth, the very 
human being he has always been avoiding, his first and almost only 
feeling is that of fear, and, accordingly, if he be retained by the 
bridle, instantaneously, by a series of jumps on all four legs, he 
makes impromptu his first hurried, untaught, unpractised effort to 
dislocate a rider. But if, instead of being as it were invited to 
perform these unsophisticated antics, be be allowed, or rather by 
whip and severe spurs, be propelled to do what he most ardently 
desires, namely, run away, his power of resistance is over, and his 
subjection inevitable. For at the top of his speed, just as when 
swimming, a horse can neither rear, kick, nor plunge, and accord- 
ingly at his best pace he proceeds on his sure road to ruin, until 
not only all his wind is pumped out of him, but after that, until 
twisted hide-thong and sharp iron have converted his terror of 
man into an ardent desire to be obedient to his will. In fact, like 
a small nation that has unsuccessfully been contending against a 
great one, he wishes to put an end to the horrors of war, and to 
sue for the blessings of peace. 

" 2. If a domestic horse that has never been broken in be sud- 
denly saddled and mounted, the rider has greater difficulties to 
encounter than those just described; for the animal is not only 
gifted by nature with all the propensities of the wild horse to re- 
ject man, but, from being better fed, he has greater strength to 
indulge in them ; besides which he enjoys the immense advantage 
of being in a civilized, or, in plainer terms, an enclosed country. 
Accordingly, instead of being forced to run away, his rider is par- 
ticularly afraid lest he should do so, simply because he knows that 
the remedy which would cure the wild horse would probably kill 
him. In fact, the difference to the rider between an open and an 
enclosed field of battle is exactly that which a naval officer feels in 
scudding in a gale of wind out of sight of land, and in being 
caught among sand-banks and rocks in a narrow channel. 

" 3. Of all descriptions of horses, wild and tame, by far the m:it 
difficult to ride is that young British thorough-bred colt of two or 
three years old that has been regularly ' broken in ' by himself, 
without giving the slightest warning, to jump away sideways, spin 
round, and at the same moment kick off his rider. This feat is a 
beautiful and well arranged combination of nature and of art. Like 
the pugilistic champion of England — Tom Sayers — he is a pro- 
13* 



150 THE HORSE. 

fessional performer, gifted with so much strength and activity, and 
skilful in so many quick, artful tricks and dodges, that any country 
practitioner that comes to deal with him is no sooner up than 
down, to rise from his mother earth with a vague, bewildered, in- 
coherent, idea as to what had befallen him, or ' how he got there.' 

" If a horse of this description and a wild one in his own 
country were to be mounted there simultaneously, each by an 
equally good rider, both the quadrupeds, probably at the same 
moment, would be seen to run away ; the Briton forever, to gain 
his liberty; the other quadruped, just as surely, to lose it \" 

Nothing can better convey to the reader the difficulties which 
the English horse-breaker has to contend with, than this extract 
from the pages of Sir F. B. Head, who has had ample opportuni- 
ties of judging both the varieties of the species which he describes. 
It shows the necessity for the cautious proceedings which I have 
endeavored to describe as the proper mode of breaking our young 
horses, and which I am satisfied will enable the breaker to perform 
his task in a way which will be satisfactory to his employer. It 
may, however, be worth while to examine into the methods adopted 
in the French school, as first introduced by M. Baucher. 

His "Method op Horsemanship" was published nearly 
twenty years ago, and has been generally received on the continent, 
where the principles of the manege have always been more highly 
prized than in this country. The author tells us, as his first prin- 
ciple, "that all the resistances of young horses spring from a 
physical cause, and that this cause only becomes a moral one by 
the awkwardness, ignorance, and brutality of the rider. In fact, 
besides the natural stiffness peculiar to all horses, each of them 
has a peculiar conformation, the greater or less perfection of which 
constitutes the degree of harmony that exists between the forces 
and the weight. The want of this harmony occasions the un- 
gracefulness of their paces, the difficulty of their movements — in 
a word, all the obstacles to a good education." To remove these 
defects, M. Baucher adopts certain methods of suppling the neck, 
in which he considers the chief obstacle to perfect action resides. 
Without going into the long details of the various supplings. it will 
be sufficient to describe the general division of the work which the 
author considers necessary. This, he thinks, must extend to two 
months, divided into one hundred and twenty lessons of half an 
hour each, two being given each day. During the first series of 
eight lessons, the breaker will devote twenty minutes to the sta- 
tionary exercise for the flexions of the jaw and neck, which can 
hardly be efficiently described without the illustrations given in 
the book itself. During the remaining ten minutes, he will make 
the horse go forward at a walk, without trying to animate himj 
applying himself all the time to keeping the horse's head in a per- 



BREAKING TO HARNESS. 15 . 

pendicular position. la the second series, comprising ten days, the 
first fifteen minutes will be occupied in stationary supplings and 
backings, followed by an equal time devoted to moving straight 
ahead in the walk and trot. The rider, while taking care to keep 
the head in good place, will commence a slight opposition of hand 
and legs, in order to give regularity to the paces. The third series, 
making up twelve days, will combine the previous supplings with 
pirouettes ; while the fourth and fifth series, making up the whole 
time, will go on to develop the various elementary paces of the 
manege. Now, in all this, it appears to me that we have only our 
best English modes of breaking carried out to excess; and I am 
yet to learn that any great novelty has been introduced by this 
standard authority of the French school. 

SUPERIORITY OF THE ORDINARY METHOD. 

It will readily be gathered from what I have already writ- 
ten that for breaking the average colt I greatly prefer the methods 
which have been in use for many years in this country. Mr. Ra- 
rey is entitled to every credit for introducing a novel mode of con- 
trolling a vicious horse, which is also of service in training cavalry 
and circus horses. Beyond these departments, however, his plans 
effect no good as far as my judgment goes, and instead of improv- 
ing the mouth they have a tendency to injure it. I have shown 
that, time and patience are grand elements of success in horse- 
breaking, and that it is a disadvantage to hasten the process, which 
is all that Mr. Rarey pretends to effect. We do not want to man- 
age our horses without reins, but on the contrary to guide them 
and stop them with the slightest possible touch consistent with the 
equilibrium to be maintained in the saddle. Hence the first object 
is the formation of a good mouth, and as this requires a consider- 
able time to develop, there are ample opportunities for gradually 
accustoming the colt to the presence and control of his master 
while it is being produced. If several breakers were to be pitted 
against each other as to which should first ride a high-spirited 
unbroken colt, undoubtedly Mr. Rarey would come off victorious ; 
but, on the other hand, I would back against any horse broken by 
his method, another which had been submitted to a good breaker 
on the old English plan, if the palm was to be given to that one 
which should prove to have the most perfect mouth and action. 

BREAKING TO HARNESS. 

The ear t jV proceedings in breaking a colt to harness are 
exactly the sam? as for the saddle, and indeed it is well in all cases 
to make him handy to ride before he is put into the break. We 
may therefore assume that this has been done, or at all events that 
a good mouth has been made, and the colt handled and accustomed 



152 THE HORSE. 

to bear the hip-straps hanging loosely over his sides prior to put- 
ting him in harness. 

There is some difference of opinion among breakers as to 
the best plan of conducting this operation. Some contend that fcr 
every kind of harness the horse ought to be put in with another, 
who will compel him to move or stop at the will of the driver. 
Others assert that on the contrary, every young horse should be 
put in first by himself, and then if he refuse to move he can be 
allowed to wait till he is tired of inactivity, which practically he 
soon is. My own opinion is founded upon more than twenty years' 
experience with all sorts of horses, and I am persuaded that by far 
the safest and best method is to put every horse into double harness 
first. Many farmers break their colts in by putting them to plough 
between two other horses, but the pull at this work is too dead for 
well-bred colts, and many jibbers are produced in this way. Every 
high-couraged horse has a tendency to jump forward on the first 
impulse to do so, and feeling the restraint of the collar he is irri- 
tated to increase his pull, whereby his shoulders are galled, causing 
him to dislike his work from the pain which he suffers. It is quite 
possible to break in a colt of average good temper for single har- 
ness without putting him first into double, but the plan is always 
attended with danger to both horse and driver, and I should 
strongly caution my readers against it. Even after two or three 
lessons in the double break, which have been quietly submitted to, 
the colt often turns restive when put in by himself, but still by 
that time he knows what he has to do ; and is not made sulky by 
being punished without cause. 

The apparatus necessary for breaking to harness consists of, 
1st, a set of strong double and single harness, made in the ordinary 
way, except that the crupper for the colt should buckle on one 
side ; 2dly, a double break of the ordinary construction ; but it is 
a safe plan to have the whole space between the fore carriage and 
the splinter-bar made up with iron rods so close together that if a 
horse kicks he cannot get his legs hung over the bar; 3dly, a 
single break, to be hereafter described. 

Before the colt is put to draw he should be accustomed to 
the pressure of the harness, and as a matter of course in any case 
he must have this put on him. Every groom ought to know how 
to do this, but at the same time in a colt he should be cautioned 
to proceed slowly and quietly, so as not to frighten him. Mr. 
Rarey's plan of showing the horse everything which is to be put on 
him is a very good one, and taking advantage of it, before the coltar 
is slipped over the head a little time may be allowed for the future 
wearer of it to smell it and examine it with his eyes also. Many 
breakers, to avoid the danger of alarming their pupils by putting 
the collar over their heads, have this part made to open at the 



BREAKING TO HARNESS. 153 

withers, where a buckle secures it after it has been slipped up 
under the neck. But collars made in this way are not so firm as 
when constructed in the ordinary mode, and are more liable to 
punish the shoulders, so that what is gained in one way is lost in 
the other. A quiet and handy man can always slip a collar over 
a horse's head if he will take time, and especially if he has pre- 
viously handled the animal and made nim accustomed to his pre- 
sence. As soon as this part of the harness is in its place the pad 
and crupper must be gently put on the back, and then quietly 
raising the tail with every hair gathered and firmly grasped in the 
left hand the right slips the crupper under it, and as soon as this 
is done the left drops the tail and assists the right to buckle the 
two parts together. In the previous breaking the colt has been 
accustomed to the crupper, so that there is no occasion for extra 
care in this part now. The pad is then drawn forward to its place, 
the bellyband buckled, and the rest of the harness being put on in 
the ordinary way, the colt is allowed to feel it for a few minutes, 
and should then be led out in a yard or other convenient place for 
an hour. The general practice is after this to put him to at once, 
but it is far better if the colt is at all shy to take off the harness 
and postpone the commencement of actual breaking till the 
next day. 

The actual putting to is managed differently in double and 
single harness, but as I have endeavored to show that the former 
should always precede the latter, I shall commence by describing 
it. In breaking to double harness a steady old horse should be 
provided, usually called a break-horse. All that is wanted is an 
animal of good courage and free from vice, who will draw steadily 
off on the slightest notice, and will stop firmly when required. 
Some old horses which have had a great deal of practice in the 
break will assist their masters in a wonderful manner. If a colt 
kicks over the pole they will press against the intruding leg and 
cause him so much pain that he remains quiet till he is relieved. 
Indeed, it matters not what the attempt is, they defeat it by some 
counter manoeuvre, but these horses are rare and fortunately are 
by no means essential to success. Before attaching the colt the 
break-horse should be put to, and it is usual to place him on the 
near side. Then, having the break conveniently situated for start- 
ing, the colt is brought out with a halter on and the cord knotted 
to his tracebearer, so as to give a good hold in case he plunges or 
kicks. The pole-piece is then loosely buckled up, after which the 
inside trace is slipped over the roller bolt, and then the breaksman 
pushing the quarters forcibly inwards the outside trace is carefully 
adjusted and the pole-piece buckled up to its proper length. 
Quickly but quietly and without fuss the reins are crossed and 
buckled, and the ends being taken by the breaker he mounts to 



154 THE HOUSE. 

the box, gives the v, ord to the break -horse to move, and the break 
is quietly started without any notice to the colt, or effort on his 
part. In the great majority of instances no resistance is made, 
and all goes on smoothly for some time. The break should be 
driven slowly for three or four miles, and then the breaksman who 
assists the breaker going to the side of the colt pulls him round 
by the halter as the breaker drives the break-horse in a wide circle 
for turning. In returning the horses should be stopped and started 
again several times, and if the colt is pretty handy the turning 
may be repeated once or twice, but more than an hour's drive 
should not be attempted for fear of galling the shoulders, to pre- 
vent which the inside of the collar should be well oiled on all occa- 
sions just before starting. When taking the young horse out the 
process of putting to should be exactly reversed. A repetition of 
this lesson, and constant turning into narrow lanes and crowded 
streets, together with uphill and downhill work, will soon make the 
young horse handy in double harness, though for town work a con- 
siderable time must elapse before he can be depended on in a 
crush, especially without a steady companion. No horse should 
be depended upon until he has been roused either by accidental 
circumstances, or, if these do not present themselves, by an appli- 
cation of the whip, for it often happens that a colt will go quietly 
enough while his temper is unruffled, but when it is once upset he 
shows tight until he is conquered or himself gains the victory. 
Now it is far better that this should occur while in the hands of 
the breaker than after he is sent home as thoroughly perfect in 
harness. 

When the colt has had five or six lessons in double harness, 
and has been made to show the nature of his temper in the way 
I have just described, he may safely be put in the shafts, but not 
till then. The single-break is a stoutly-built two-wheeled vehicle, 
with strong and straight ash shafts. It should be so high as to 
preclude the possibility of the horse kicking over the drawing- 
bar; and though occasionally it will happen that a clever animal 
will kick very high indeed, yet there are few that will get over a 
bar three feet from the ground. A kicking-strap and safety-rein 
should always be used, for fsar of accidents; and a breaker of 
experience generally uses the driving-rein in the cheek and the 
Bafety-rein in the lower bar; both being held in the same way as 
for four horses. No bearing-rein should be employed; and the 
tugs should be made open above, so as to drop the shafts into them. 
With these precautions, there is no difficulty in putting a colt into 
single harness; but, if at all stubborn, he may not be easily made 
to start, having no break horse to take him off. Usually, however, 
when five or six lessons in double harness have been given, the 
colt walks off quietly enough; but, after one or two lessons, he 




STABLES— SITUATION ANI> ASPECT. 155 

discovers that what is to be done must be done by him unassisted, 
and he is then very apt to give himself airs, if his temper is at all 
inclined to be bad. Kicking may be kept under by the kicking- 
Btrap; running away may be restrained by the bit; but jibbing in 
single harness is very difficult to get over. If necessary, an out- 
rigger may be applied to the break, and a second horse put on; 
but it is better to exercise the patience by quietly sitting still, 
when, after a short time, the jibber generally moves on of his own 
accord. Beyond these expedients, nothing more is required than 
time and practice. 



CHAPTER X. 

STABLES. 

Situation and Aspect — Foundations — Stalls versus Loose Boxes — 
Hay Chamber and Granary — Doors and Windows — Drainage 
and Water Supply — Ventilation and Lighting — Stable Fittings — 
Harness Room — Coach-House — Servants' Rooms — Ground 
Plans of Stables — Necessity for Airing New Stables. 

SITUATION AND ASPECT. 

The two most important points to be regarded in the choice 
of a situation, are, first, the power of excluding damp; and, sec- 
ondly, the best means of keeping up a tolerably even temperature 
in winter and summer. It is seldom that the stables are fixed 
without regard to the convenience of the inmates of the house 
itself, the corner most out of sight being the one usually selected 
as good enough for them. It should not, however, be forgotten, 
that the horse is a native of a dry country, and cannot be kept in 
health in a damp situation either in-doors or out. Nothing, ex- 
cept starvation, tells injuriously so soon upon the horse as damp 
when exposed to it — he loses all life and spirit; work soon tires 
him; his coat stares; he will scarcely look at his food, and he be- 
comes rapidly emaciated, severe disease, often in the shape of some 
prevailing epidemic, showing itself after a short time, and gene- 
rally soon ending in death. Grease and cracked heels, swelled 
legs, hide bound, inflamed eyes, and coughs and colds, are the 
evils which attend damp, when exhibited only in a slight degree; 
but these are sufficient to interfere with the use of the horse, and, 
irrespective of other reasons, as domestic comfort is greatly de- 
pendent on the carriage being always at command, the stables 
should not be sacrificed, as they too often are, to a fancy for keep- 
ing them out of sight. 



156 THE HORSE. 

In choosing the situation, therefore, a spot should be looked 
out which will be high enough to allow of perfect drainage at all 
seasons of the year. No periodically overflowing brook should 
ever be allowed to discharge it" contents into the foundations, for 
even if the floor of the stable tself is kept above the water, yet 
the soil underneath will be saturated, and acting like a sponge, 
will allow the damp to creep up the walls incessantly. Sometimes, 
in order to keep the stables well out of sight, a hollow is chosen, 
and the floor is then excavated below the level of the surrounding 
surface. The consequence is, that even in a summer-storm, the 
rain-fall of the surrounding land finds its way — either into the 
stable, or around it; and the effect is equally injurious in either. 
Concrete under the floor, and courses of slate at the bottom of the 
walls, will do something to meet the evil ; but it is better to avoid 
it altogether by choosing a site at least two or three feet out of 
the way of all flood-water, and with a good fall into a sewer or 
adjacent running stream. 

As TO the aspect, there is some difference of opinion whether 
it should be northerly or southerly, all being adverse to a direc- 
tion either due east or west; the former being too cold, and the 
latter too hot. As far as I know, all writers on the subject have 
preferred a southerly aspect, until the recent appearance of Mr. 
Miles' " General Remarks on Stables," in which valuable work an 
opinion is expressed that "the prevailing desire to have the front 
of the stable due south is a mistake." The reasons for coming to 
this conclusion are grounded upon the fact, which is undeniable, 
that a more even temperature can be maintained if the situation 
is sufficiently sheltered from the stroke of the wind. No doubt, 
a southerly aspect allows the sun to enter with great power in the 
summer; but my experience does not lead me to believe that flies 
are less likely to get in through a door or window open to the 
north, than through similar openings looking south. Mr. Miles 
even objects to the heat of a winter's sun, which, he says, in the 
middle of the day makes the stable almost as hot as in the sum- 
mer ; the heat being often suddenly succeeded by a degree of cold 
approaching the freezing point. Here, again, I certainly cannot 
follow him, and I should hail with pleasure any beams of the sun 
which show themselves between November and March, either in 
the stable or kennel. Animal life is always benefited by the direct 
rays of the sun, although, when the heat produced by them is in- 
tense, the mischief done is so great as to counteract the advantage. 
Still, in the winters of this country, such a thing is not, in my 
opinion, to be dreamt of, as a properly ventilated stable becoming 
too hot, and I look upon Mr. Miles' conclusions as being consider- 
ably strained when he is arguing in favor of a northerly aspect. 
I do not mean to assert that, on the whole, he is wrong, but that 



HAY CHAMBER, AND GRANARY. 159 

stables but tbose for race-horses, hunters, and in a certain propor- 
tion for hacks and carriage horses. In every large establishment 
a small number must be set aside for the sick and lame, but I am 
now solely discussing their merits as applied to horses doing work. 

HAY CHAMBER AND GRANARY. 

In every stable conducted economically, whether in town or 
country, a space should be allotted for storing hay, straw, and corn. 
Hay and straw are either sold by the ton or by the load, which is 
two cwt. less, and on that account the loft should always hold at 
least a ton of hay, and the same quantity of straw, because if a 
smaller bulk is purchased, it cannot be obtained at the regular 
market price. Now a ton of hay cut into trusses will nearly occupy 
the space over an ordinary loose box, supposing that the walls of 
the loft are not carried up far above the floor, and every additional 
yard in height of wall allows stowage for another ton. Straw occu- 
pies more space by nearly one-half, and it may be calculated that 
a loft formed entirely in a tiled roof of the usual pitch, must have 
an area equal to two roomy loose boxes, or two stalls and a box, to 
stow away a ton of hay and a ton of straw, and even then there 
will be little space for any other purpose. To find room for a 
corn-bruiser and chaff-cutter, as well as for a stock of oats, a 
granary with an area at least as large as a loose box should be ar- 
ranged, and with these conveniences a stable may be said to be 
complete — that is to say, with dry and airy stowage-room, some- 
where, amounting altogether to about 2000 cubical feet. If the 
number of horses kept is larger than three or four, the hay-chamber 
need not generally be increased to any great extent, because the 
hay and corn are purchased by the ton or load ; but it is often a 
great convenience to have accommodations for two or three months' 
provender, and therefore it is always well to be provided with space 
enough for that purpose, if it can be so arranged. 

With these calculations to guide him, the builder has 
next to consider where he shall fix the stowage-room which I have 
said will be necessary. Formerly a loft was almost always provided 
over the stable, in which the provender was kept; but in those 
days, when high racks were in vogue, a trap-door was left over 
them to keep them supplied, and the consequence was, that, in the 
first place, the horses were continually annoyed with the dust fall- 
ing through, and, in the second, the hay was injured by the vapor 
from the stable reaching it through the same opening. On these 
accounts a great outcry was raised against placing the loft in this 
situation ; and stable-architects insisted upon a hay chamber, as it 
was called, being built on the ground-floor, or at all events in some 
other situation than that usually allotted to it. There was great 
sense in this precaution, and for a time credit was due to the pro- 



160 THE HORSE. 

moters of the improvement ; but on the subsequent introduction of 
low racks (which the grooms did not object to when they had to bring 
their hay in through the stable cfoor), and the simultaneous dismissal 
of the openings over them to the loft, the objections to the old 
situation of the latter were done away with ; and the objections of 
the grooms having been removed, no opposition could be offered 
by them, and thus it has come to pass that in most of our best 
stables low racks are established without openings over them, and 
with the hay and straw stowed in a loft overhead, perfectly pro- 
tected from injury from the stable emanations, by means of a sound 
floor and a good ceiling beneath it. The fodder so placed does 
good instead of harm, inasmuch as being a bad conductor of heat 
it tends to keep the stable cool in summer and warm in winter. 
Arrangements are easily made for throwing it down through a 
shaft in some convenient spot, clear of the horses ; and as it can 
more readily be filled from the cart or wagon through the window 
than a chamber on the ground, labor is economised also. On the 
whole therefore it may be laid down that if low racks are adopted, 
which I shall hereafter show are the best on every account, the 
loft should be placed over the stable, while even if high ones are 
preferred, it may be fixed in the same situation, provided no open- 
ings which will allow the passage of dust and steam are left above 
them. 

The construction of the hay chamber should be such as will 
provide for getting the hay and straw into it; for the daily supply 
of these articles out of it into the stable can always be easily ma- 
naged without mechanical assistance. Mr. Miles, in the work 
which I have already quoted, suggests the introduction of a spout 
leading down from the loft to the manger, so as to convey the corn 
and chaff into it; but I have a great objection to any plan which 
allows of a direct communication from the one to the other, and as 
neither corn nor chaff is a bulky article, it is easy for the groom to 
carry them in his sieve. Moreover, each feed of corn should be 
sifted and examined for stones, which cannot so well be done in 
the bulk. I should therefore strongly advise the planner of a 
stable to avoid all such premiums upon laziness, and to keep the 
ceiling of his stable perfectly intact, except for the purpose of 
carrying off the obnoxious gases which are the product of respi 
ration. 

The granary, however, will require several fittings ; and, in 
the first place, it should be so constructed as to be mice-proof. If 
the walls are soundly built, no mice can gnaw through them, but 
even if they are of soft materials, a lining of Roman cement will 
exclude mice altogether. This article also keeps the corn dry, 
and forms an excellent floor, as well as lining for the walls. If 
the granary is on the ground, instead of using boards, which har- 



FLOORS, DOORS, AND WINDOWS. 



161 



bor vermin of all kinds, lay a course of bricks edgeways upon 
concrete, and then upon the former have an inch of Roman cement 
carefully laid, and take care to allow time for it to harden. When 
this is done, corn may be stored without fear of loss by mice, and 
all that is necessary is to turn it over every fortnight if at all new, 
or once a month if dry. Few grooms are to be trusted with an un- 
limited supply of oats, as they will almost all waste them in some way 
or other. It is better therefore to shut off a part of the granary 
with open lattice or wire-work, admitting a free current of air, but 
not allowing anything large enough to contain corn to pass. At 
stated intervals the allowance of corn may be taken out and kept 
in the other part of the granary till wanted. Here also should be 
fixed a corn-bruiser and chaff-cutter, and also a bin for oats, beans, 
and chaff. 

MATERIALS FOR FLOORS, DOORS, AND WINDOWS. 

An attempt has recently been made to revive the old plan of 
laying an open or perforated wooden floor so as to allow the urine 
to pass through, and thus keep the litter dry. Mr. Haycock, in 
his " Gentleman's Stable Manual," is a strong advocate for this 
plan, but I cannot say that I am impressed with his arguments in 
its favor. That it may save the litter to some extent is clear enough, 
but it only does so at the expense of cleanliness, for as the wood 
absorbs a great deal of the urine in its descent, ammonia is con- 
stantly being given off, and the stable is never sweet. For this 
reason these floors were abandoned in the early part of the present 
century, when they were extensively tried, and I should much 
regret their general re-introduction. It may be laid down that no 
material should be used for stable floors which absorbs the urine, 
but to select one which in itself is liable to decomposition is doubly 
wrong. 

The doors of stables are generally made 
of yellow, or, as it is called in the midland 
districts, red deal. Sometimes elm is used, 
but it is very liable to cast or warp. Unless 
the proprietor is very particular about ap- 
pearances, what is called a "ledge door" is 
considered sufficient, the rails being of inch- 
and-half stuff, and the boards which are only 
nailed on, from three-quarters of an inch to 
one inch thick. The ordinary thumb-latch 
is very apt to catch in the skin of the horse 
as he passes through, causing often a severe 
wound, and on that account a sunk catch is 
preferred which drops into a recess made 
for it in the door-frame, but this is not 
14* L 




DOOR FOR LOOSE BOX. 



162 



THE HORSE. 



adapted for a " ledge door,"" a frame at least two inches in thick- 
ness being necessary to allow of the lock being let in. For loose 
boxes a door may be made with the upper half of open iron work 
as in the annexed engraving, but these are expensive and can only 
be adopted when money is not considered. In a door of this con- 
struction the hinges are so arrauged that with a rounded edge to 
the frame there is no sharp projection, and even when wide open 
the hip of the horse passing through cannot possibly be injured. 
No door should be less than three feet six inches wide and seven 
feet high, and the outer door is better if made three feet nine or 
even four feet in the clear. 

All stable windows should be of iron, and if they are cast 
with iron bars six inches apart from centre to centre, no horse will 
break the glass. Every other bar may be made to project so as to 
form the framework for the glass, and in this way serve a double 
purpose. In building new stables I should always prefer to place 
the windows close to the ceiling and above the mangers, so as to 
give the horse the fresh air where he wants it. If they are made 
to open in a valvular form, as represented below, on the same prin- 
ciple as has long been adopted in church windows, and as I have 
for years recommended for lighting and ventilating kennels, there 
is no down draught, and every advantage is obtained from the fresh 
air without the disadvantage which ensues when it blows down 
upon the back or loins. In the engraving (a) represents the win- 
dow perfectly closed, in the state 
admitting light but no air; (6) 
shows the same window opened 
as far as the framework will allow, 
intermediate degrees being regu- 
lated by the ratched rod (c), which 
is fixed to the upper edge of the 
frame, and catGhes on the top rail 
of the sash. Iron frames of this 
shape may be obtained by order 
order of any iron-founder, or they 
may be made of wood. The glass 
must be guarded with bars either 
fixed to the sashes themselves or 
to the framework. It will be seen 
in the figure (b) that I have indi- 
cated with an arrow the direction 
which the air inevitably takes as 
it enters the stable. Of course 
these windows may be fixed in any wall other than that at the 
head of the horse, but I prefer the latter as being the nearest to 
the nostrils where the air is wanted for the purpose of respiration. 





VENTILATING WINDOWS. 



DRAINAGE. 



163 



The size should be about two feet square. The additional cost is 
very trifling when it is considered that no other openings need be 
provided for the admission of air. 

DRAINAGE AND WATEE SUPPLY. 

Next in importance to the choice of the situation and aspect, 
is the method to be adopted in draining the stable. The former 
cannot well be altered, but the latter may, and therefore I have 
placed it second. To ensure the perfect performance of the office 
of cleansing the stable, the first thing to be done is to provide a 
means of receiving the liquid which constantly must fall upon the 
flooring, consisting partly of the urine of the horses, and partly 
of the water used in keeping them clean. Several plans are adopted 
for this purpose, some of which are founded upon true principles 
of economy, while others are wasteful in the extreme. In towns 
and cities provided with sewers and water pipes, liquid manure is 
seldom worth the cost of removing it, and hence in them there is 
no choice, and the whole of the liquids flowing through the drains 
must pass off into the common sewers. Even here, however, a 
catch pit should be provided somewhere outside the stable, without 
which the traps will either become clogged if made gas-tight, or 
they will admit the foul emanations from the common sewer if 
they are so arranged as to allow of the free flow of drainage from 
the stable into them. Such a pit as that represented below will 




: : 

SECTION OP CATCH PIT. 

serve all the purposes required, and if it is regularly cleaned out 
once a week by the groom there will never be an overflow, while 
in no case can any gas pass through it from the sewers. It is 
merely a square pit lined with brick or stone and cemented. The 
size must depend on the number of horses, but if made on the cab 



164 THE HORSE. 

culation of one cubical foot per horse up to four horses, and half 
an additional foot for each horse beyond this number it will fulfil 
all the conditions required. The principle on which it acts is as 
follows : The liquid drainage enters from the stable at (a), and 
falls into the inner half of the pit, marked (b), which is separated 
from the other half by an iron partition (c). This is fixed above 
in a stone or iron lid (eZ), which, being fitted in a frame at the top 
of the pit, effectually closes it except when taken up by the 
groom for the purpose of removing the solid contents at (6). The 
sides of the iron partition (c) should run in grooves cut in the ce- 
ment lining the pit, which it should pretty accurately fit, but only 
so as to keep all solid matter from passing through. A space of 
from two to four inches according to the size of the pit is left be- 
neath the iron partition and the bottom or floor, and through this 
the liquid passes, filling the outer half (e) and overflowing through 
the pipe (/) as fast as it has run in at (a), the same level being 
always maintained in the two halves of the pit. With this simple 
apparatus properly constructed all internal stench traps may be 
done away with, and the iron surface-drains which I shall pre- 
sently describe alone introduced. 

The first thing in all stables is to provide for the rapid removal 
of any fluid which falls upon the litter, whether it be urine or 
water used in washing legs or floor. Without this damp arises and 
the health of the inmates suffers in proportion. Foul gas, such as 
is given off from decomposing matters in sewers, is no doubt preju- 
dicial, but damp is still more so ; and while I would be careful to 
guard against the former I would still more cautiously attend to 
the exclusion of the latter. Hence it is that I would exclude all 
internal traps ; and every one who has watched the proceedings of 
his own stablemen will have seen how constantly, if they know 
their business, they are obliged to clean out the stench traps if 
they are furnished with them, or on the contrary how slowly these 
articles allow the fluids to pass off if they are not thus attended to. 
Even the old-fashioned simple plan of making the stalls to fall 
rapidly to an open gutter, and carrying this straight behind the 
horses through an opening in the wall to the manure-hole, will 
answer better than neglected stench traps ; and as it is always wise 
to count upon the occasional carelessness of the men, it is expe- 
dient to arrange on this basis if it is practicable, which I know by 
experience it is, by the adoption of the catch-pit I have described. 
In the country such a pit may be interposed between a liquid 
manure tank and the stable, or it may simply be placed outside, 
taking care that the drain (/*) has some safety valve to allow of 
the escape of any gas which is generated beyond it either in the 
liquid manure cistern or in the drain which carries away its con- 
tents, whatever they may be. No trap will prevent the passage of 






DRAINAGE— WATER SUPPLY— VENTILATION. 165 

gas if the pressure is greater than that of the atmosphere, and in 
many cases decomposing animal matter at a high temperature 
evolves gas under one considerably greater. The best stench trap 
will then be offensive, but a bad one choked with solid matter will 
be doubly so. By thus doing away with all internal traps, and 
simply using wrought iron gutters of the annexed form, which are 



IRON SURFACE GUTTER. 



provided with moveable covers, that allow of their being regularly 
cleaned out with a common besom, such perfect drainage may be 
attained that the stable neither smells badly nor feels at all damp. 
It will be seen that angular joints are forged so as to connect the 
stall drains with those at the backs of the horses, and in this way 
there is no difficulty whatever in keeping the litter perfectly dry 
excepting just at the spot where the urine or water first falls. If 
the drain at the backs of the horses is a very long one it must be 
sunk beneath the surface and carried on by means of glazed 
earthenware or iron pipes, with grated openings behind each horse 
(not trapped), but the iron gutters above described are quite suffi- 
cient to provide for three or four horses. 

Water-Pipes, where there is no pump, must be laid in the 
ground so as to be out of the reach of frost, and should be furnished 
with a good-sized cistern in or near the saddle-room, where it can 
be kept from freezing. The system of laying on water pipes to 
the mangers, by which they may be readily filled, is a good one, 
but it costs money and is by no means necessary. If the iron sur- 
face drains which I have described are used no flushing is required, 
a besom easily cleaning them out, but pipe drains are certainly the 
better for a good flushing now and then. Hard pump water is not 
so good for drinking as soft or river water, but in many situations 
nothing else can be obtained. When soft water is within reach it 
may easily be conducted into a cistern in the saddle-room, where 
its temperature will be always nearly that of the stable. 

VENTILATION AND LIGHTING. 

I have already entered to scone extent upon the best form of 
windows for stabling, and have shown how far they may be applied 
to the purpose of supplying air from without. Sometimes, how- 
ever, there are already in the building windows of the ordinary 
construction ; and in that case it will be necessary to introduce 
ventilators, of some shape or other, to admit the external air. In 
all cases, some provision should be made for preventing any 



166 THE HORSE. 

draught falling upon the horses, and for regulating the amount of 
air. The common round tube, with a bend at a right angle 
downwards on the outside of the wall, is the cheapest form in which 
this can be done ; but it is very apt to be rendered totally inefficient 
by being stuffed with hay in cold weather, and left in this state 
ever afterwards. Several patents have been lately taken out for 
getting a down-draught by the side of the up-draught tube ; of 
which Mr. Moir's four-sectioned plan is, perhaps, the best. In 
this a large tube of iron is made to descend from the apex of the 
roof to the stable ceiling; and being divided into four tubes by 
iron plates, which rise above the top, the wind always descends 
through one or two of these tubes whenever there is the slightest 
air moving. Unfortunately, however, it happens that when it is 
most wanted it is totally inactive — namely, in the hot calm days of 
summer. Ventilation is always easy enough when there is a wind 
blowing; and, indeed, the difficulty then is to moderate it; but it 
is when there is no air moving that stables become so hot and close. 
I have known these down-current tubes tried in all sorts of places, 
including stables, kennels, work-rooms, cigar-divans, &c. ; but 1 
have always found that, without the power of moderating the down- 
draught by closing-valves placed at the bottom of the tubes, they 
are not only useless in calm weather, but highly dangerous in a 
wind. Now, horses have not the sense to close valves, when a 
wind rises in the night, and grooms are absent from 8 o'clock p. 
M. till 6 A. M., during which time a whole stableful of horses may 
be chilled to an alarming extent. Hence, if adopted, I should 
never venture to leave these ventilators open during the night, and 
this would take away from their efficiency sufficiently to forbid their 
use. I greatly prefer the valvular window which I have described 
at page 162, for the introduction of air, and a plain ventilating 
shaft, such as I shall presently allude to, for carrying off the foul 
air. Failing the window from any cause, nothing is better than a 
latticed ventilator, which should be fixed in the head wall, or in 
either of the side walls, near the head. 

Having thus provided for the admission of fresh atmospheric 
air, the next thing to do is to carry it off, when it has been used 
for the purposes of respiration. As I before remarked, it is not 
safe to depend upon the wind for this purpose ; and the only re- 
maining agent is the diminution in its specific gravity when air is 
warmed by respiration. By taking advantage of this principle, 
the foul air is carried off from the upper parts of the stable if a 
shaft is fixed there for its passage. Sometimes a small shaft is in- 
troduced over the head of each horse; but in practice it is found 
that one large shaft, about a foot square, will purify a stable con- 
taining four or five horses. It is better to fix this about the mid- 
dle of the stable, as regards its length, but near the heads of the 



VENTILATING SHAFT. 



167 




TJh 



VENTILATING SHAFT. 



horses, as shown in the above section of a stalled stable. The tube 
may be made of wood — and, indeed, this material is better than 
iron, because it does not condense the steam as it ascends nearly 
so much as metal, and there is less dropping of water from it. The 
upper end of this shaft should be guarded from down-draughts, 
either by a cowl which will turn with the wind, or by a covered 
ventilator of galvanized iron fixed on the ridge of the roof, the 
price of Which will depend on 
the size. At the bottom, a sheet 
of iron, considerably larger than 
the shaft, should be fixed about 
three inches below the mouth, so . 
as to prevent any down-draught 
striking the horses; and also to 
catch any drip from the conden- 
sation of the steam of the stable, 
as it comes in contact with the 

interior of the shaft. This, however, will be almost entirely 
avoided by making the shaft of wood, as I have already mentioned. 
Loose boxes must be ventilated separately, if they are not open to 
the stable; but if they are, the same shaft will take off their foul air 
as is used for the stalls, provided there are not more than four or 
five horses in the same space. A shaft about six inches in diam- 
eter is amply large enough for one box ; and this, with the venti- 




HEAD OF SHAFT. 



168 



THE HORSE. 



lating window or the separate ventilator I have described, will 
keep any box in a healthy condition, if its drainage is properly 
attended to. There is a very common notion that no ascending 
shaft will remove the carbonic-acid gas, which is one of the results 
of respiration, because its specific gravity is so great that it lies 
close to the floor. This, however, is a fallacy in practice, though 
perfectly correct in theory, because all gases have a tendency to 
mix rapidly together ; and hence, although the weight of pure 
carbonic acid gas is so great that it may be poured from one glass 
into another, yet, as it is given gradually off by the lungs, it does 
not remain separate, but mixes with the bulk of air in the stable, 
and is carried off with it. For this reason, there is not the slightest 
necessity to admit the fresh air near the bottom of the stable, as is 
sometimes contended for. If it is attempted, nothing can prevent 
a draught falling upon the bodies of the horses when they are 
lying down, and they inevitably catch cold. If the upper regions 
are kept pure, the whole air soon mixes; and thus, when the open- 
ings are fixed near the ceiling, as I have described, all the good 
which is wanted from them is obtained without any risk of draught. 

STABLE FITTINGS. 

There are two modes op 
separating stalls from each 
other; that most commonly 
adopted in private stables being 
the travis, whilst in cavalry and 
cab stables the hanging bail is 
used for the sake of economy 
of money and space. The latter 
being considerably cheaper than 
the former, I shall describe it first. 
All that is necessary is a strong 
pole of ash, oak, or elm, which is 
fixed about three feet from the 
ground between the horses, one 
end being attached to the manger 
by a strong iron hook and eye, 
and the other being either sus- 
pended from the ceiling by a 
chain or attached to a post, reach- 
ing from the ground to the ceiling 
in such a way that, if the horse 
gets fixed under or over it, he can 
readily be relieved by striking 
upwards the ring («.), which 
liberates the hook (6) and allows 
the ball (c) to fall to the ground. 




STABLE FITTINGS. 169 

A better plan is to use a plank of elm instead of a po.e for the 
bail, and the difference of cost is not very great. I have myself 
adopted this plan with advantage in a two-stalled stable, which is 
too narrow for a travis, the whole width for two horses being barely 
ten feet. Here, of course, two stalls would be unsafe, for no horse 
can be accommodated properly with less than five feet six inches 
from inside to inside of stall-posts, and this would require eleven 
feet sis inches, being eighteen inches more than I had to do with. 
I find that a plank of elm, one inch and a half in thickness and 
eighteen inches deep, will protect a horse very effectually from the 
kicks of his neighbor; and as I happen to have had an inveterate 
kicker in one of the stalls for sis months, without injury to her 
fellow, the trial has been a pretty severe one. The hangings at 
each end are just the same as for bails, a chain, in my stable, 
descending from the ceiling, and no tail-post being used on account 
of the propensities of the mare in question. She would have de- 
molished any fixed post behind her in a single night; but the 
hanging plank of elm not being a fisture, gave way to her blows, 
and she soon left it alone. If the horse is tied up with one rein 
only, he can bite his neighbor with great facility over the bail, 
but two reins are just as efficient with hanging bails as with a 
travis, and these should never be neglected. 

The length op the travis should never be less than sis feet 
sis inches, and if the stable is fourteen feet deep, which it ought at 
least to be, the travis may be seven feet long with advantage. Be- 
yond this length it should not estend escept in very roomy stables, 
as there is danger of straining the back in turning out of a nar- 
row gangway into the stall. No travis should be less than seven 
feet in height at the head, and four feet sis, or five feet at the 
tail-post. If lower than this, the horses can bite each other over 
the head, or kick over the tail, and so become hung, from which 
latter accident serious mischief may ensue. The tail-post is gene- 
rally made only to reach high enough to take the ring for the pil- 
lar reins, but it is fir firmer if carried to the ceiling. When the 
stable is to be built from the ground, the tail-posts may be made 
to economize wood in the flooring-joists above, as they diminish 
their length by one-half. A moderately stout beam, say eight 
inches by four, is carried from end to end, and into this the posts 
are framed, while the joists, running in the direction of the stalls, 
are only seven feet long each, for which a very small scantling 
will suffice, even if heavy weights of hay and straw are placed in 
the loft. This is a great consideration, as the floor of the loft re- 
quiring to be made strong, the joists, when fourteen or fifteen feet 
long, should be at least ten inches deep. If wooden posts are sunk 
into the ground, which they must be if short, they soon decay, 
whereas, when they reach the ceiling, as I have advised, they may 
15 



170 THE HORSE. 

be dowelled into a stone rising above the floor, aid thus escape 
destruction. Charring the part buried is the usual expedient 
adopted to prevent decay, but though it acts beneficially to some 
extent, it does not long put off the decomposition of the woody 
matter by the damp of the floor. 

A gangway bail is sometimes used in stables, when valuable 
horses aro kept in stalls, such as hunters and race-horses. It is 
merely a strong piece of oak which is dropped into a mortice in 
the stall-post at one end, and into another made in the wall oppo- 
site j so that, if either of the horses gets loose, he cannot reach 
his neighbors. It also serves to prevent two horses from hanging 
back and kicking at each other, which vicious animals will some- 
times do. 

The mangers and racks are now almost invariably made of 
the form, as shown on p. 172, whether of wood or iron;* the addi- 
tion of a separate cavity for water, bran mashes, or gruel, being a 
modern invention. With the single exception of Mr. Miles, I am 
not aware of any recent authority on the subject who has written 
in favor of the old high rack, and after about fifteen years' expe- 
rience of each in my own stables, I can confidently recommend 
the low position for its manifold advantages both to the horse and 
his master. The above-named writer gives as the reasons for his 
preference of the high rack, " that besides the chance there is of 
a horse getting his feet into a low rack, when he is either frolic- 
some or alarmed, it is open to the objection that he is constantly 
hanging his head over his food, and breathing on it while he is 
feeding, which renders the undermost portion of it moist and 
warm, and makes him reluctant to consume the whole." Now the 
first of these objections may be tenable, for, no doubt, a horse can 
get his feet into a low rack, but so he can into his manger, and as 
this must be placed low, no farther harm is done in the one case 
than in the other. Moreover, the rack being placed in the corner 
is not so likely to receive the feet as the manger in the middle. 
But, in either case, if the bottom is strong enough to bear the 
weight, which it ought to be, no mischief is done, and the horse 
gets down again when he likes. The second objection I contend 
to be wholly without foundation, and I do this after carefully try- 
ing the experiment for a month, with the same four horses, tended 
by the same men, and doing the same kind of work. It so hap- 
pened that in the year 1845 I required two additional stalls; and 
at that time having high racks in my own three-stalled stable, I 
hired one of two stalls close adjoining. In this I placed two of 
the three horses for a month, and carefully weighed the hay which 

* i. e. In England. In this country the high racks are generally pre- 
ferred. — Editor. 



STABLE FITTINGS. 171 

was consumed by them during that period, at the sane time weigh- 
ing that eaten by the other three horses in the three-stalled stable. 
At the end of the month I changed the two horses for two of those 
in the three-stalled stable, and again weighed the hay consumed 
by each. The result was, in round numbers, a saving of ten 
pounds of hay per week per horse, and this was done without any 
further limitation than the judgment of the head groom, who, 
moreover, was prejudiced in favor of high racks. I immediately 
introduced low racks into my own stables, and have used them 
since with the greatest satisfaction and advantage. Such is the 
result of my own experience, and I find that all those of my ac- 
quaintance who have tried the low racks, are strongly impressed 
with their advantages, nor have I ever known an accident result 
from them. The only place where they are dangerous is in the 
loose box of the brood mare with her foal, where the latter may 
damage itself by getting into the manger, but against this risk I 
have cautioned the breeder at page 122. In those stables where 
a long wooden manger is fixed, the alteration of a part to form the 
low rack is easily accomplished, and the saving in hay will soon 
pay for the trifling outlay. 

With regard to the material of which the racks and 
mangers should be made, I am not quite so settled in my convic- 
tions. Wood is undoubtedly the cheapest, and it has the advan- 
tage in its favor that the horse, in laying hold of the cap with his 
teeth, when he is being dressed, which most high-couraged horses 
do, wears them out much less rapidly than with the iron manger. 
This objection is met by makjng the cap so wide that the horse's 
jaw will not embrace it, and with this modification I have nothing 
to allege against the metal but its price, — while it has the advan- 
tage that mice cannot gnaw through it, and that it does not become 
decomposed by remaining constantly damp, which is the case with 
wood. The iron is generally lined with enamel, but as I believe 
that its oxide is absolutely advantageous to the health of the horse 
when taken into the stomach with his food, I do not care whether 
this additional expense is incurred or not. The enamel always 
looks and is clean, which is in its favor, but, as I said before, this 
is its only real advantage. With these preliminary observations, 
I shall describe each, so that in fitting up a stable the proprietor 
may take his choice. 

(1.) Wooden mangers may be economically made in part of 
elm or deal, and in part of oak, which latter wood should always 
be used for the capping, on account of the wear occasioned by the 
teeth, and for the bottoms, to prevent decay. The top of the cap 
should be from 3 ft. 3 in. to 3 ft. 6 in. from the ground, and the 
manger itself should be 13 inches wide at the top and 9 inches at 
the bottom; depth 11 inches. The caps should be 4 inches deep 



172 



THE HORSE. 



and 3 inches wide, and these should be firmly wedged into the 
wall or travis at each end. The bottoms may be of inch oak, and 
the backs, ends, and fronts, of inch elm, or, if deal is used, they 
should be a little stouter. Supposing low racks to be introduced 
also of wood, they should be 2 feet wide, and should project 5 
inches beyond tbe manger, making them 18 inches deep inside. 
An oak post must be dropped into the floor at the junction of the 
two, so as to give strength at this part, and the two caps may be 
strongly nailed or bolted to the top of this. The rack is generally 
made from 2 ft. to 2 ft. 3 in. deep outside, which leaves a space 
below sufficient to insure the free passage of seeds and dust. 

(2.) Iron mangers are made of the same dimensions as the 
above, but in general the capping of the rack is continuous with 
that of the manger, as shown in the engraving on this page. 
Both are five inches wide, to prevent the horse laying hold of the 
iron and thus wearing down his teeth. A water-tank occupies 
one end of the space at the head of the stall, the manger the 
middle, and the rack the other end, — the two former being 
generally enamelled inside. The addition of the tank is in favor 
of iron as a material ; for water remaining in wood soon rots it, 
and hence even if wooden mangers are preferred, the tank, if 
adopted, must be of iron. 

The only remaining fitting yet to be described is the enam- 
elled tile, which is now very generally introduced in first-class 
stables at the heads of the stall above the mangers. I cannot say 
that I see any great advantage in them, as a coat of sound Roman 
cement will be as impervious to all kinds of diseased secretions as 
the best enamel, — that is to say, when each is washed. Neverthe- 
less, I have shown these tiles in the annexed engraving of a couple 




IRON FITTINGS FOR STALLS AND LOOSE BOX. 



of stalls and a loose box, which is taken from the pattern plan ex- 
hibited at the St. Pancras Iron works. Here all the iron fittings 



HARNESS-ROOM. 17o 

which I have already described are introduced, and my reader may 
judge for himself of their appearance, which is certainly, in my 
opinion, extremely neat and well adapted to the requirements of 
the horse. The stalls show the iron manger, rack, and trough, as 
described at page 170. The floor is laid with blue paviors, cut to 
fit the wrought-iron gutters alluded to at page 165. The loose box 
is lined with inch deal, and the partition from the stalls is of open 
iron-work. This also shows the corner manger-rack and trough 
suitable for a loose box. The only objection that I know to these 
very complete fittings is on the score of expense. 

I have already said that I object to corn and chaff-shoots 
arranged so as to open into the manger, on account of the dust which 
they bring down. If the corn and chaff are kept upstairs, a shoot 
may be arranged so as to deliver them at or near the gangway, the 
particular spot chosen depending on circumstances which will vary 
with almost every stable. A granary, or corn-room, on the ground 
floor, does not admit of a shoot. 

The walls of a stable should be lined, whenever they come in 
contact with the horse, with inch elm or deal. Without this, in 
cold weather, the brick or stone, whether plastered or not, is too 
cold, and if a delicate horse lies down with his loins against it, he 
will probably be attacked with rheumatism, or perhaps with in- 
flammation of the kidneys. Usually, also, as I have already ob- 
served at page 172, the head wall above the manger is lined either 
with boards or enamelled plates, which have lately been introduced 
as being cleaner than boards, as they undoubtedly are. They are 
either of enamelled iron, nailed on to boarding, or of vitrified plates 
set in cement, the latter being cheaper and having nearly the same 
appearance. 

HARNESS-ROOM. 

Evert Harness-Room should be provided either with a stove or 
open fireplace, in order to dry the saddles, harness, and clothing, when 
they come in wet. If, also, it can be so arranged that a supply of 
hot water can be obtained, by fitting a boiler to the back of the 
fire, the groom will be always provided with what he must occa- 
sionally obtain from some source or other. No establishment can 
be considered complete which does not provide plenty of hot water 
when wanted; and if it is heated in the saddle-room, so much the 
better. 

When the saddles and harness are cleaned, they must be 
put away till wanted; and here they must be protected from injury, 
either in the shape of scratches, damp, or dust. Harness and 
saddle brackets are made either of wood or iron ; the former being 
the cheaper, but the surface they present being necessarily larger, 
they do not allow the stuffing to dry so well as iron brackets, which 
are made to turn up and form a hook below, on which bridles may 
15* 



174 THE HORSE. 

be hung. This is a capital plan where space is scanty, but other- 
wise it is not to be recommended. Where a long cupboard can be 
separated off by hanging doors, either of glass or panel, the har- 
ness and saddlery can be kept in very nice order ; and even a cur- 
tain of cloth or canvas will serve a similar purpose, when drawn 
across in front of them. In addition to the brackets, bridle hooks, 
either single or double, must be attached to the walls, to hang the 
bridles, stirrup leathers, &c, to. Masters who are particular about 
their stable arrangements have many other fittings, such as wheels 
for whip-lashes to hang over, &c. &c; but those which I have 
enumerated are the essentials for a harness-room intended for use 
rather than show. A double hook suspended from the ceiling, 
where it can be used to hang dirty harness on while washing it, is 
extremely useful; but any groom who understands his business 
will suggest something of the kind, according to circumstances. 

COACH HOUSE. 

In the COACH HOUSE mere standing room is all that is neces- 
sary to provide if the harness-room stove is made to answer the 
double purpose of airing both, which should always be managed. 
Open carriages may be kept in tolerably good order without any 
stove, but the lining of close carriages soon becomes mouldy unless 
heat in some form or other be applied. 

SERVANTS' ROOMS. 

Little need be here said of the servants' rooms, but I cer- 
tainly agree with Mr. Miles in his objection to placing them over 
the horses. Quiet is essential to the sleep of these animals, N and if 
grooms are to be walking over head at all hours their sleep must 
necessarily be disturbed. It is always well to have a groom's room 
within hearing of his horses, so that if any of them get cast, or are 
taken ill, he may be able at once to go to their assistance, but this 
can readily be done without placing any lodging rooms over the 
stalls or boxes. 

GROUND PLANS OF STABLES. 

In deciding on the best ground plan for stabling a great deal 
must always depend upon the kind and number of horses to be 
placed in it. In the following plans I shall consider the two ex- 
tremes afforded by those for racehorses or hunters on the one hand, 
and on the other by the hack or harness stable for two or three 
horses where space is a great object. As a general rule racehorses 
and hunters require a loose box each, because they are often 
greatly distressed, and must then have entire rest and quiet to 
enable them to recover themselves. They are also a great many 
hours together in the stable, and being called upon for great exer- 
tions when out they ought to have plenty of air when indoors 



GROUND PLAN OF STABLE. 



175 



The best proportions for their boxes are sixteen to eighteen feet 
long by twelve feet wide and nine or ten high, but these are per- 
haps a little above the average. Nevertheless I have given these 
in the annexed plan of a 




FEET. 
RACING OR HUNTING STABLE. 



It is divided into four separate stables thirty-six feet long and eigh- 
teen wide, in which three or even four loose boxes may be separated 
by partitions nine feet high with open iron tops, as shown at page 
172, or one or more may be divided by travises into six stalls each 
Bix feet wide. I have already alluded to the fittings for each, and 
therefore I need say nothing more here beyond alluding to the 
plan itself.* 

* The plan on the ensuing page, of a stable belonging to Mr. Samuel R. 
Phillips, of Philadelphia, was selected after a careful examination, as 
being unusually well arranged for four or five horses. It lias now accom- 
modations for five horses, but it could be made very convenient for four 
by taking out the partition between the fourth and fifth stalls, thus making 
three stalls and a loose box. — Editob. 



176 



THE HORSE. 




33%! FT 

PLAN OF STABLE FOR FOUR OR FIVE HORSES. 



A Stalls. 

B Hay-Rack. 

C Carnage House. 

D Doors. 

E Closet for harness, with glass doors. 



F Stairs to the Hay Loft, &c. 

G Manger. 

H Stench Trap. 

W Windows. 



NECESSITY FOR AIRING NEW STABLES. 

To PUT horses into new stables without airing them is to 
give them cold or rheumatism. Indeed those which have been 
merely uninhabited for some months are not fit for horses that are 
accustomed to be kept warm and dry, without taking the following 
precautions. If the walls are very new some open stoves should 
be kept burning for at least a week, not with the windows and doors 
shut, as is often done, but with a good current of air blowing 
through the whole building. In the absence of regular stoves 
loose bricks may be built up so as to allow a good draught of air 
through the coals or wood burnt in them, and thus to give out as 
much heat as is wanted. For stables that have merely been closed 
for a month or two a fire kindled on the floor and kept burning for 
a few hours will suffice, but when the horses are first brought in, 
their beds should previously be made up ready for them, and then 
the doors, windows and other ventilators should all be shut till the 
stable becomes thoroughly warmed by the natural heat of their 
bodies, which it soon is. When this is accomplished, if the wea- 




~r 



Ground Plan of Stable of Fairman Rogers, Philadelphia. 



(176) 



FEEDING. 177 

ther is warm, the ventilators should be opened as usual, and the 
windows also if necessary ; but it is better to err on the safe side, 
and not to do this till the groom is perfectly satisfied that hia 
charge are all comfortably warm. 



CHAPTER XI. 

STABLE MANAGEMENT. 

Theory and Practice of Feeding and Watering — Dressing or Groom- 
ing — Clipping, Singeing, and Trimming — Use and Application 
of Bandages — Management of the Feet — Daily Exercise — Pro- 
per Temperature — Remedies for Stable Vices and Bad Habits — 
Preparation for Work — Ordinary Sweating — The Turkish 
Bath — Physic — Final Preparation — Treatment after Work — 
Summering — Care of Saddlery and Harness. 

In the following pages, my attention will be specially di- 
rected to the management of private stables ; -and therefore the 
race-horse, the omnibus and cab horse, and the poster, will not pass 
under review. Those who are engaged in their superintendence 
make it their business to ascertain what is best to be done ; and, 
whether they do or not, each of them fancies that he knows better 
than any one else how to effect his object. 

THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF FEEDING AND DRINK. 

In adapting the quantity and quality of horse-keep to the wants 
of each horse, regard must be paid first of all to the small size 
of this animal's stomach, which affects all alike ; secondly, to 
the work for which he is designed; and thirdly, to the peculiar 
constitution of each individual. From the first of these causes the 
horse must never be allowed to fast for any long period if it can 
possibly be avoided, it being found from experience that at the end 
of four hours his stomach is empty, and the whole frame becomes 
exhausted, while the appetite is frequently so impaired if he is 
kept fasting for a longer period that when food is presented to him 
it will not be taken. Previously to the introduction of railroads 
harness-horses were often required to do long distances in the day, 
and it was found that if the whole journey must be performed 
without stopping to bait, it exhausted the horse less to increase 
the pace up to nine or ten miles an hour than to dawdle over the 
ground on an empty stomach. If two horses are driven or ridden 
fifty or sixty miles under similar conditions as to the weight they 
have to draw or carry, and the one is taken at the rate of °ix miles 

M 



178 THE HORSE. 

an hour, which will keep him fasting from eight and a half to ten 
hours according to the distance, while the other is travelled fast 
enough to do it in six or seven hours, the latter will be less ex- 
hausted than the former, though even he would be all the better 
for a feed in the middle of the journey, the time devoted to this 
act being easily picked up by the increased energy which would 
be given by the corn. No horseman of experience is ignorant of 
these facts, and after a long day the hunting man who knows what 
he is about will always be seen on the look out for a feed of corn 
or a pint of oatmeal for his hunter, before he attends to his own 
wants. The human stomach will bear hunger far better than that 
of the horse, and if the rider feels his appetite pretty keen, he may 
be satisfied that the animal which carries him is still more in want 
of food. The kind of work which the horse is intended for affects 
not only the quantity of food required, but also its quality. Thus 
very fast work, as in racing and hunting, strains the muscular 
system as well as the heart and lungs to the utmost, and therefore 
the food which is best fitted for the development of the former to 
the highest degree consists of those kinds which present the ele- 
ments contained in the muscular tissue in the largest proportions 
consistent with the due performance of the digestive powers. These 
are found in oats and beans, but nature herself teaches every ani- 
mal instinctively to keep within such limits as are safe, and hence 
it is found that though every horse will greedily devour a peck or 
a peck and a half of corn daily, yet he will not go beyond this 
quantity even though it is not sufficient for his wants, and in spite 
of his being deprived of every other kind of food. The demands 
of his muscular system are supplied by the corn, but there are 
certain saline matters in hay which are not found in the former, 
and being necessary for the performance of several important func- 
tions the stomach receives its warning through the appetite and 
no more corn is received into it. On the other hand, the hard- 
worked horse fed on hay alone craves for corn, and will greedily 
devour almost any quantity put in his manger until he upsets his 
digestive powers, when the appetite for it ceases. It is found by 
experience that a certain proportion of hay and corn is best adapted 
to each horse according to the work he has to do, and his own par- 
ticular constitution, so that in laying down rules for feeding it is 
necessary first of all to ascertain what demands will be likely to be 
made upon the system. Few owners of carriage-horses would like 
to see them driven to the door with their muscles showing the 
lines between them as they ought to do in a race-horse when fit to 
run. Such a state of high training as will put the latter in con- 
dition would be impracticable for the former without wearing his 
legs out, and not only destroying his rounded and level appearance 
but taking away the air of high spirit and life which tends so 



FEEDING. 1Y9 

much to gratify the eye. Hence the feeding suited to give the 
one nothing but muscle is not fitted for the other, whe must have 
more hay and less oats, as well as less work. So also in deciding 
upon the proportion, if any, of oats and beans, regard aiust be had 
to the amount of work which is demanded, for there can be no 
doubt that while admitting the good effects of beans in large quan- 
tities upon the severely tried cab or omnibus horse, they are inju- 
rious to the carriage-horse, whose blood soon becomes heated under 
their constant use. Lastly, the peculiar constitution of each horse 
must be studied before it can be known whether the average quan- 
tity and quality of food which will suit the majority of horses 
doing the same kind of work, will be enough or too much for him. 
Some washy animals pass their food through them so quickly that 
they do not absorb from it one-half of the nutritive elements con- 
tained in it. These must be fed largely if they are kept at work, 
and those articles of food must be selected for them which have a 
tendency rather to confine the bowels than to relax them. Inde- 
pendently of this extreme case it never can with certainty be pro- 
nounced beforehand what amount of food will keep an untried 
horse in condition, but in a large stable an average can easily be 
struck, and it is this quantity alone which can be estimated here. 
The blood of a horse fed on highly nitrogenized food does not differ 
on analysis from that of another which has been kept on the oppo- 
site kind of diet. Physiological research, however, tells us that 
muscle is chiefly composed of fibrine, and that every time a bundle 
of its fibres contracts a certain expenditure of this material is made, 
calling for a corresponding supply from the blood, which cannot 
be afforded unless the food contains it. Hence the badly fed horse 
if worked soon loses his flesh, and not only becomes free from fat, 
but also presents a contracted condition of all his muscles. And 
thus science is confirmed by every-day experience, and the fact is 
generally admitted that to increase the muscular powers of a horse 
he must have a sufficient supply of nitrogenized food. As I have 
remarked above, the nutrition of muscle requires fibrine — but in. 
addition the brain and nerves must be supplied with fatty matter, 
phosphorus, and albumen. > The bones demand gelatine and earthy 
salts, and the maintenance of heat cannot be effected without car- 
bon in some shape or other. But it is chiefly with nitrogenized 
food that we have to deal in considering the present question, 
there being plenty of the other substances I have mentioned in all 
the varieties of food which are not largely composed of fibrine. It 
may therefore be taken for granted that the hardly worked horse 
requires oats or beans, or both mixed together in varying propor- 
tions, together with such an amount of hay as will supply him with 
the starch, gum, sugar, fat, and saline makers which his system 
requires, while on the other hand the idle animal does not use his 



180 THE HORSE. 

muscular system to any extent, and therefore does not require much 
or any oats or heans. 

Salt is the only kind of seasoning which has stood the test of 
experience in this country, and even it is by no means generally 
employed. Some grooms give an ounce of common salt in the 
water daily, others give it by sprinkling it on the hay, while a 
third set leave a lump of rock salt constantly in the manger for 
the horse to lick. The last is the only really safe and useful mode 
of using this article, and I am persuaded that all horses will thrive 
better if they are allowed a lump of rock salt constantly within 
their reach. The quantity which is thus taken is by no means 
large, for rock salt does not easily dissolve by the mere contact of 
the moist tongue. A lump weighing two or three pounds is placed 
in the manger, and it will generally be found that a pound will 
last nearly a month, but there is a great variation in the quantity 
consumed by different horses. 

'1 HE water which is given to the horse will materially affect 
his condition if it is not suitable to him in quality or quantity, or 
if he is allowed to take it when heated by work. Thirst is most 
distressing to this animal, and if he has not his water regularly 
when his stomach demands it, he will not only refuse his solid 
food, but he will drink inordinately when he has the opportunity, 
causing colic or founder to supervene. For this reason it has 
lately been the fashion to provide iron tanks on a level with the 
manger, which are intended to be kept constantly full, and indeed 
some are arranged with cisterns and ball-cocks fur that purpose. 
But those who contend for this constant supply have overlooked 
the fact that every horse when he first comes into the stable is 
unfit to be allowed to " take his fill" of water, and yet he will be 
sure to do so if the water tank is open to him Undoubtedly for 
horses which are never heated by work the tank is perfectly safe, 
because as they never become thirsty, since they prevent the full 
development of the appetite by drinking small quantities as it 
arises, so they are never induced to do themselves an injury by 
imbibing lafge quantities of water at any time. On the other 
hand, working horses are kept out of the stable without water for 
five or six hours on the average, and when they come in they are 
pot inly very thirsty but they are generally in a state in which a 
full draught of fluid will seriously injure them For this reason 
1 think the tnnk unsuited to the ordinary private stable, though 
of course it is easy to prevent mischief by taking care either to 
have a cover over it. which is kept down till the horse is cool, or 
to let off the water for a similar period. The question is one in- 
volving a choice of evils incidental to carelessness, and it is doubt- 
ful whether in the long run the horse is more likely to be injured 
by being allowed to fill himself with water at the time I have 



WATER. 181 

*]luded to, or by being deprived of his proper allowance of it at 
regular intervals. Nothing is more easy for the master to detect, 
when he visits his stable (as he should do at uncertain hours), 
than a state of thirst. Few horses are allowed as much corn as 
they will eat, and the rattling of the sieve or bin will make every 
occupant of a stall place himself in an attitude of expectation. 
But if the lifting of a bucket produces the same eager look, and 
especially at any hour but the usual time of watering, it may at 
ouce be concluded that the horse is not regularly and sufficiently 
supplied with fluid, and it will generally be found that his condi- 
tion suffers accordingly. It is astonishing how little water will 
suffice if it is given at regular intervals, and it is the neglect of 
this periodical supply which produces the craving that leads to 
dangerous repletion. If it is decided to adopt the tank, provision 
should also be made for emptying it readily, without calling upon 
the groom to bale it out with a teacup, which I have actually seen 
done in one particular stable, the owner of which prided himself 
on the perfection of his arrangements. If the water only came 
into contact with the iron, no great harm would ensue, because 
the oxyde formed by the union of the oxygen in the water with 
the metal itself, in the shape of common rust, is by no means pre- 
judicial to health. But no iron manger containing water will long 
remain free from decomposing vegetable matter, unless it is regu- 
larly scrubbed out daily, because the horse, as he holds his head 
over it during his feeding, drops particles of hay, corn, &c, into 
the water, and this being raised in temperature to that of the sta- 
ble, soon dissolves the starch and other ingredients which are 
prone to decomposition.' The consequence is that the sides of the 
tank become foul, being covered with a thick slime, which not 
only renders the water nauseous to the horse, but also makes it 
prejudicial to his health. For this reason a waste-pipe and stop- 
cock are absolutely essential, for by their aid alone can the groom 
be expected to do his duty. 

The quantity of water which will be imbibed by horses 
varies even more than that of their solid food, yet ignorant grooms 
are too apt to give all alike. The most strenuous advocate for the 
continuous supply would doubtless make an exception at those 
times when horses are just about to be severely galloped, as in 
hunting or racing; and on the other hand, almost all grooms who 
Lnow their business allow their charge to fill themselves at night, 
and also give them a liberal allowance when they have done their 
work and are dressed and cooled down after it. I have found in 
my own stable, in measuring the actual quantity of water drunk 
by the horses, that even among those which are doing the same 
amount of work and eating similar food both in quantity and 
quality, the water will vary from two buckets a day to nearly five. 
16 



182 THE HORSE. 

If salt is given, it will produce considerable thirst at first, but 
after a time this effect ceases, and I have not found it in the long 
run make much difference. Green food will also make less altera- 
tion in the desire for water than might be expected, which may 
be accounted for by the fact that it increases the secretions of 
urine and perspiration, and also acts gently on the bowels; so 
that, though more fluid is taken into the system with the green 
food, yet a proportionably large quantity passes off. It is, how- 
ever, necessary to be cautious in the allowance of water to horses 
which have just begun to eat grass, for if given in the usual quan- 
tity on a stomach full of green food, it will very probably bring 
on an attack of colic. As a rule, no horse should go to any 
moderately fast work with more than half a bucket of water in 
him, and that should have been swallowed at least an hour. This 
subject, however, will be better considered under the next head. 

The quality of water best suited to the horse is one mode- 
rately soft, but it should not be rain water collected in tanks, 
which soon becomes full of decomposing vegetable matter. I have 
known the health of a whole stable full of horses seriously injured 
by using rain water, as was proved by the fact that its filtration 
through charcoal, gravel, and sand soon restored the animals to a 
fair state of health, without any alteration in their solid food or 
work. On the other hand, very hard water disagrees almost to 
an equal extent, often producing the state of the skin known as 
"hide-bound," and sometimes affecting the bowels in the form of 
serious diarrhoea. But in course of time most sound horses be- 
come accustomed to hard water, and then a change to that which 
is soft must be carefully avoided whenever work is to be demanded 
of them. Thus in sending hunters or harness-horses used in fast 
work from home, when they have been accustomed to either kind 
of water, it often happens that their health is upset, and this is 
quite as likely to occur when the change is from hard to soft, as 
from soft to hard water. Trainers of valuable race-horses are so 
aware of this fact, that irrespective of the risk of poisoning, which 
they thereby avoid, they take water with them, knowing the inju- 
rious effects likely to be produced by a sudden change. 

The proper temperature of the water given in the stable 
is a matter of serious importance, and the effect of a bucketful of 
cold water to a horse just come in from his work is very serious. 
Even in a state of rest cold water will often produce cramp or colic, 
so that careful grooms never give it by any chance without warm- 
ing it, either by the addition of a little hot water, called " chilling" 
it, or by letting it stand for some hours in the stable or saddle- 
room. If the former method is adopted, it should not be made to 
feel actually warm, for in that state it nauseates a delicate feeder, 



DRESSING, OR GROOMING. H3 

but it should merely have the chill taken off, so that in dipping 
the hand into it, no sensation of cold is produced. 

DRESSING, OR GROOMING. 

By the term Dressing is generally understood the purifica- 
tion of the skin, which the horse requires. He is never in the 
highest health unless the pores are kept free from the scurf which 
forms on them whenever he sweats, and the object of the strapping 
which he receives at the hands of his groom is to get rid of this 
mechanical obstruction, as well as to brace the nerves of the sur- 
face by the friction of the brush or whisp. This dressing must be 
renewed daily, even if the horse has not been sweated, and each 
time that he comes in from work it is necessary to repeat it. The 
former operation is or should be conducted in the same manner 
every day, but the latter will vary according to the state of the 
animal when he comes in, that is to say, depending upon whether 
he has been sweated and is cool again, or if he is still wet, or has 
been in the rain with or without exercise enough to warm him, or 
lastly, if he has been ridden or driven through dirty roads or over 
a deep country. Each of these conditions will therefore require a 
separate consideration. 

The usual morning's dressing is commenced either as soon 
as the horse has done his early feed, or on coming in from exer- 
cise, if such is allowed or enjoyed. The utility of grooming after 
work cannot be denied, for it would be absurd to contend that a 
horse coming in wet and dirty should be left in that state till the 
next day; but it is perhaps necessary to explain to the idle groom 
that it is not a mere polishing of the surface of the coat which is 
wanted, but a deep steady pressure of the brush into the roots of 
the hair, so as to remove all the scurf which collects around them 
and clogs the pores, through which the sweat ought to be allowed 
to exude freely. Practically it is found that an hour's good strap- 
ping daily, not only gives a polish to the coat, but it causes the 
secretion of a fine oil, which has a tendency to throw off water, 
and thus may save the horse exposed to the rain from catching 
cold. Moreover, it certainly stimulates the nerves so as to enable 
them to bear exposure to the weather, which would otherwise tell 
injuriously on an animal which is covered up with thick clothing 
in-doors, and stripped of everything, even of the long coat which 
nature gives him, when he is submitted to the " pelting of the piti- 
less storm." When the horse is turned out to grass, he is washed 
by every shower of rain, and though his coat continues to look 
dirty on the surface, yet the skin itself is braced by the winds and 
cleansed by the waters of heaven. Not so, however, in-doors. 
Here his clothing keeps his coat short, and keeps up a continual 
state of insensible perspiration, the watery particles of which pass 



184 THE HORSE. 

off through '.he woollen rug or serge, leaving the salts and animal 
matters behind, as is apparent on examining the internal surface 
of any clothing which has been worn for any length of time with- 
out washing, when it will be found to be lined with scurf, and 
matted with oily animal matters. There are many drugs which 
will give a gloss to the skin, but they will diminish instead of 
increasing its capability to bear exposure, and hence their use is 
altogether forbidden by those who know their injurious effects. 
The horse which is little used requires dressing to take the place 
of exercise, and if he has plenty of good strapping, his coat will 
look like satin ; but the hunter and the hack or harness-horse, 
exposed to all weathers, must be carefully groomed and receive 
plenty of elbow grease, or his coat will look hollow and stand out 
like ''the quills of the fretful porcupine," whenever he is allowed 
to stand for a few minutes in a cool wind. 

The first thing which the groom does in commencing his 
morning's task is to turn the horse round in his stall, and fold the 
quarter piece back upon itself, so as to expose the whole of the 
fore quarters. Then, taking his brush in the hand nearest the 
head, whichever side he begins with, he works away at the head 
and face till he has thoroughly cleansed those parts, carefully 
clearing out the dust and dirt from the roots of the ears, where it 
is very apt to lodge, and continually cleaning his brush with the 
curry-comb held in the other hand. Next proceeding to the neck, 
he works at that part in the same way, turning the mane over to 
the other side, and then going to the shoulders, bosom, and legs, 
and finishing off with a whisp of hay slightly damp, instead of the 
brush. Having thoroughly worked at this half of the body, the 
horse is turned round in his stall, and the hind quarters and flank 
treated in the same way, the clothing being removed entirely while 
this is going on. In the spring and autumn, when the coat is 
being shed, the brush should never be used, and the whisp alone 
should be depended on. Nothing spoils the look of the new coat so 
surely as the brush, except perhaps the currycomb ; but this latter 
should not, under any circumstances, touch the skin of a horse 
when it is in proper order, and it is scarcely necessary to forbid its 
use when the coat is being shed, at which time it would be posi- 
tively cruel, as well as injurious to the appearance. The brush 
and whisp having effectually cleansed the skin, and given the hair 
itself a certain amount of polish, the finishing stroke is put to the 
dressing by means of the linen rubber, with tho addition, in well- 
managed stables, of the leather. Either or both of these in suc- 
cession are steadily passed over the surface in the direction of the 
hair of each part, and then the quarter piece or rug, as the case 
may be, is replaced, taking care to throw it lightly in front of its 
proper place, and then to draw it steadily backwards, so as not to 



DRESSING, OR GROOMING. 185 

disturb the propei position of a hair. The roller is smoothly put 
on, being first laid on the back double, and then the offside is turned 
over into its place, when the straps being laid hold of under the 
belly, it is properly tightened and the quarter piece smoothed 
beneath it. This completes the dressing of the body, but there 
are several minor points still to be attended to. A clean sponge 
is squeezed out, and with it the nostrils, eyes, and anus are sponged 
clean, aud, if necessary, the mane is damped so as to enable the 
groom to comb and brush it smoothly down on its right side. The 
tail also is carefully combed out, beginning at the lower end, if it 
is a full one, and not touching the top until the bottom is smoothly 
arranged. Lastly, the legs and feet are attended to, the stopping, 
or whatever may be in the latter, being picked out, the legs washed 
if stained, and then carefully rubbed dry. Many grooms, when 
they have white legs to keep clean, begin the dressing by washing 
them, and then putting on flannel bandages, they leave them on 
till they have done the body, when they are taken oft' and the legs 
rubbed with the leather and linen rubber, till they are quite dry, 
finishing with plenty of hand rubbing if they are at all inclined 
to fill. All this being done, the litter is put straight, and the horse 
is ready to have his second feed. A good deal of muscular exer- 
tion, and laid out in the right way, is necessary for the due per- 
formance of the groom's daily task. There is no royal road to 
make a horse's coat, when in work,. really look well, and not less 
than an hour's hard strapping will suffice for this daily. White and 
light gray horses will take up even more time than this, as with 
all the care that can be exercised the thighs and legs will occa- 
sionally become stained by lying in the dung dropped during the 
night. Soap and water laid on warm, and well rubbed, will get 
rid of a great deal of the brown color left, and if it is not suffered 
to increase by successive layers, it may be removed with compara- 
tive ease. The slight tinge which remains may be got rid of by 
the aid of washerwoman's blue, a bag of which is to be dipped into 
clean water and the skin washed with this after the soap has beei 
got rid of. A little experience is required to ascertain the exact 
amount of blue, but one or two experiments will soon teach an in- 
telligent groom. 

Whenever a horse is wanted to go out, he must again be 
whisped over before his saddle or his harness is put on. The groom 
strips the whole of the clothes off, turns him round in the stall, 
and carefully clears all the dust away from the ears and head with 
the rubber ; then, proceeding regularly backwards, the whole body 
is smoothed over, and the saddle and bridle or harness put on. 
Lastly, th 3 feet are picked, and an oil-brush is rubbed over the 
outside of the hoofs, to give them a neat appearance, when the 
16* 



186 THZ HORSE. 

pillar reins are buckled to the bit on each side, and the horse is 
left till he is wanted. 

Dressing after work depends upon the state in which the 
horse is returned to the stable, when he may be cool and clean, or 
in a profuse sweat still going on, or with his sweat dried in, or 
completely smothered with dirt, or wet from rain, but chilled rather 
than too hot ; or lastly, when exhausted from a severe run or other 
hard work. 

When the horse returns cool and clean, the groom throws 
his rug lightly over his quarters, and, taking a bucket and a brush 
he proceeds to pick and wash out the feet, standing on the near 
side, with his back to the horse's head, so that he can use his left 
hand to hold the feet, and his right for the brush. If the legs 
are quite clean, there is no necessity for washing them at all; but 
most grooms do so as a matter of course, and if they are properly 
dried afterwards, there is no objection to the plan. Hunters, and 
valuable horses of all kinds, are immediately protected by flannel 
bandages ; but in ordinary stables the legs are merely partially 
dried with a rubber, and are left in that state till the horse is 
dressed over. If the work has been continued for more than four 
or five hours without feeding, it will be well to put on flannel band- 
ages, and let the horse have a feed of corn ; but, otherwise, it is 
better to finish the dressing first. The cloth being removed, a 
whisp of hay is taken in the hand, and first the head and neck, and 
then the body, is dressed over ; finishing off with the rubber, as 
previously described. The clothing is then put on, the legs thor- 
oughly dried, the litter put straight, and the task is finished. 

When brought in still sweating profusely, if the weather 
is warm, the horse must be led about in the shade, with the sad- 
dle on, till he is nearly or quite dry; for if he is put into the stable 
before he is cool, he will break out again as badly as ever, and if 
the saddle is removed the back will become sore. A hemp halter 
is cooler and more handy than a head-collar, and it is usually em- 
ployed out of doors for all purposes connected with cleaning. In 
the winter, this exposure to the air out of doors is not necessary ; 
and, indeed, it would often be dangerous, the stable being gener- 
ally cool enough to stop all tendency to sweat, even with a light 
rug on. At this season, therefore, after the legs are washed and 
the bandages put on, which they should be whenever the horse is 
in a sweat, the dressing may be conducted in the usual way, in tie 
expectation, which will seldom be disappointed, that at the end cf 
half rn hour's strapping, the skin will have become quite cool, and 
will look all the better for the profuse cleansing which it has re- 
ceived by means of the watery fluid given off by it. A scraper 
will be necessary, which may be either of wood or iron ; and with 
this all the superfluous moisture is at once scraped from the sur 



DRESSING, OR GROOMING. 187 

face, which greatly facilitates the process of drying. Two men 
ought then to set to work, each taking a side, and working first at 
the head, and then gradually backwards. In this way, no part is 
allowed to chill, aud the moisture is removed as rapidly as possi- 
ble. In the use of the whisp, the rubbing need not always be 
hard; and it should be chiefly against the direction of the hair 
till it is nearly dry, when the proper direction is again taken. 
There is a good deal of art in drying a sweating horse, and nothing 
but experience and practical teaching will give it. As a gen- 
eral rule, it takes two men nearly three-quarters of an hour to 
thoroughly dress a horse coming in profusely sweating, supposing 
the weather to be only moderately warm. In very hot weather, 
such an attempt would be quite fruitless, and the only resource is 
to wait patiently till the effects of exercise are abated sufficiently 
to allow of the ordinary clothing being worn. Experience soon 
tells the groom how soon he can venture to begin, and no rule can 
possibly be laid down which will supply the place of this valuable 
power. Even when the horse is taken in, he must not at first be 
clothed, but he must be dressed without anything on him ; and in 
summer he must often be left for some time afterwards in a naked 
state. When there is a good open yard shaded from the sun, the 
dressing should be done out of doors; and when this can be 
managed, it may be commenced much sooner than in the stable, 
unless this is a very cool one. Slight muscular action, either by 
walking, or in some other shape, is necessary to provent conges- 
tion of blood in the internal organs ; but it matters not whether it 
is effected by simply leading the horse about, or by stirring him up, 
as is always the case in dressing even the dullest animal. In other 
respects, there is no difference from the plan last described. 

When the sweat is completely dried in, the hair is full 
of powdery matter, which must be thoroughly brushed out, before 
the skin will look well or the horse be properly dressed. To do 
this, "nothing more is required than the use of the brush previously 
to the whisping over; but a good deal of time must be spent in 
getting rid of all the foreign matters left behind on the evapora- 
tion of the watery particles of the sweat. There is an amount of 
grease in it which makes the powder stick to the hair, aud no- 
thing but hard *abor will get it away. For this reason, many grooms 
adopt the plan of washing their horses all over with soap and 
water, when they come home in this state ; and although I prefer 
dry rubbing, I would rather have water used than let the skin re- 
main full of dry sweat. A common water brush is generally used, 
or, if the coat is thin, a sponge will be far better. No time must 
be lost in the operation ; and unless two men can be spared, the 
rug must fce thrown on as soon as the water is scraped off with the 
scraper, an 1 the skin is just partially dried. In this state he muv 



188 THE HORSE. 

be left for a few minutes ; attention, in the meantime, being paid 
to the thorough drying of the head and neck, which cannot well 
be clothed advantageously. These parts soon dry; for in washing 
them there is no occasion to wet the mane, which may be turned 
over to the other side while each is being cleaned, and the ordinary 
coat of the head and neck holds very little water. After they 
are made comfortable, the cloth is turned partly back over the 
loins, and the shoulders, ribs, and bosom are dried with the whisp 
and rubber ; after which the whole is stripped off, and the hind 
quarters thoroughly dried. 

A horse smothered in dirt is by careless grooms too often 
left to dry with it all on ; and then it is brushed out, or, if idle- 
ness reigns triumphant, a besom is taken in hand for the purpose. 
Where the particles of mud are few and far between, and are 
already dry or nearly so, there is no objection to their being re- 
moved by friction alone ; but if they are wet and (as they gener- 
ally are) in large masses, water must be used to get rid of them ; 
and the whole of the legs, belly, flank, and tail will often require a 
good slushing with a brush and water before the dirt is removed — 
the tail being placed in the bucket itself, if it is a long one, and 
thoroughly cleansed in that way. A scraper is then employed to 
get rid of the water, the legs are superficially rubbed and then 
bandaged, the clothing is thrown on, and the dressing may be com 
menced as usual. 

In case the skin is wet from rain, whether the work has 
been fast or not, it is seld -m necessary to provide against a continu- 
ance of the moisture, foi the chill of the rain will generally pre- 
vent any tendency to break out in a sweat. The horse is, therefore, 
at once taken into the stable, and, if very wet', he is scraped - after 
which he is rubbed over, and his clothing put on while his legs are 
being attended to, by washing, bandaging, &c. The dressing is 
then conducted as in the case of the horse coming in sweating in 
cool weather. 

An exhausted horse demands all the resources of the groom's 
art, without which he will suffer in more ways than one. An 
extreme case seldom occurs, except in hunters, who require the 
greatest care to bring them round after a severe run. On coming 
into the stable, if their powers have been taxed to ihe utmost, and 
their ears are cold and drooping, the first thing to be done is to get 
these warm by friction ; an assistant, in the meantime, preparing 
borne gruel, while another puts some warm flannel bandages on the 
legs. It is wonderful what a restorative is found in the friction of 
the ears, after a few minutes of which, a moderately tired horse 
will look quite a different animal, evidently enjoying the process, 
and dropping his head to the hands of the groom with the most 
perfect air of enjoyment. Where, however, there is only one 






CLIPPING vs. LONG COATS. 189 

groom for the whole task, the bandages should be put on first — 
that is to say, as soon as the clothing is thrown on ; then the gruel 
should be given, and as soon as this is swallowed the ears should 
be warmed by friction. No attempt at dressing should be made 
till the gruel is taken and the ears are warm ; and if they cannot 
be restored to their proper temperature, a warm cordial of ale and 
spices should at once be given. Usually, however, there is no 
occasion for this; and, after getting the stomach attended to, the 
skin of the body begins to recover its natural temperature, and the 
extremities become warm again. In the course of an hour, the 
dressing may generally be effected; but no time should be lost in 
it, and the skin must not on any account be chilled. After it is 
done, a feed of oats and a few split beans may be given, if the 
appetite seems inclined to return; but sometimes, when the ex- 
haustion is excessive, no solid food can be taken with safety till the 
next day ; and gruel, with cordials, must be resorted to as the only 
kind of support which the stomach will bear. 

CLIPPING, SINGEING, AND TRIMMING. 

The coat op the horse is changed twice a year, the long 
hair of winter coming off in April and May, or sometimes earlier, 
when the stables are warm, and there is no exposure to severe cold. 
A slight sweat hastens this shedding, as every horseman knows by 
experience, and even in harness the hairs are cast in the face of 
the driver to his great annoyance on a windy day. Clipped horses 
are longer than others in shedding their coats, and present a most 
disagreeable mottled appearance, which makes the state still more 
noticeable. The long hair on the legs is about a month later in 
coming off, and indeed it will not fall till midsummer, unless some 
more violent means than are used in ordinary dressing are adopted. 
With some breeds and individuals the winter coat is not very much 
longer and coarser than that of the summer ; but all, save blind 
horses, show more or less difference in favor of the summer coat. 
Curiously enough, horses which are totally deprived of sight, have 
almost invariably a good winter's coat, often better than that which 
they show at other seasons ; but why this is so no one has eve? 
been able to explain, though I have never known the fact disputed 
About the middle of October, or early in November, the summer 
coat is thrown off; but some of the hair appears to remain as a 
sort of undercoat, among which the long, coarse hairs of winter 
make their appearance. These continue growing for six weeks or 
two months if they are clipped or singed, and even after Christ- 
mas, if the weather is cold and the skin is much exposed, there 
will be an evident increase in length of some of the hair. In 
accordance with the growth of this on the body is that of the hair 
on the legs, which becfome feathered all the way dowu below the 



190 THE HORSE. 

knees in the forelegs, and half way down the backs of the canna 
bones in the hind legs. Low-bred horses have more hair on these 
parts than thorough-breds ; but even these latter, if they are not 
stabled tolerably warmly, exhibit a great deal of hair on their legs. 
Those who can see no possibility of improving on nature come to 
the conclusion that this long hair is a defence against the cold, 
which ought not to be removed, and they argue that clipping and 
singeing are on that account to be rejected altogether. But these 
gentlemen forget that the horse in his native plains has always a 
short coat, and that the winds and rains, which cause him here to 
throw out an extra protection, are not natural to him. Moreover, 
if the animal is left to follow his own impulses, even when turned 
out in this country, he will be all the better for his long coat, for 
while it has the great advantage of protecting him from the cold, 
it is not wetted by sweat, because he does not voluntarily gallop 
long and fast enough to produce that secretion. The natural pro- 
tection is therefore undoubtedly good for the horse when left in a 
state of nature ; but when man steps in and requires the use of 
the horse for such work as will sweat him severely, he discovers 
that a long coat produces such great exhaustion, both during work 
and after it, that it entirely forbids the employment of the horse 
for hunting, or any fast work. I have myself many times found it 
impossible to extend a horse for any distance on account of his long 
coat, which distressed him so much as to make him blow directly, 
whereas on removing it with the clipping scissors he could gallop 
as lightly as a race-horse, and be able to go as fast and as far 
again as before. When this happens in the course of the week 
following the previous failure, the only change made being in the 
coat, there can be no mistake made, and a constant repetition of 
the same result leaves no room for dispute as to the beneficial effects 
of removing the hair. But, say the opponents of the plan, " All 
this may be true, yet it is unsafe to expose the clipped horse after 
he has been warmed, or indeed at any time." Experience tells a 
very different tale, and informs us that so far from making the 
horse more liable to cold, clipping and singeing render him far less 
so. Suppose one of ourselves to be exposed to a cold wind, should 
we rather have on a thin dry coat or a thick wet one ? Assuredly 
the former, and undoubtedly the wearer of it would be less liable 
to cold than he who has the wet one on. So with the horse. As 
long as his winter coat can be kept dry he is protected by it, and 
the slow worker, who is not made to pull such heavy weight as to 
sweat him, will be all the better for its protection, but the moment 
the pace is sufficiently accelerated to warm the skin the sweat pours 
forth, and is kept up in-doors by the matted mass of moist hair 
with which the horse is covered. In former days I have had horses 
Wet for weeks together, from the impossibility of getting them dry 



CLIPPING vs. LONG COATS. 191 

in the intervals of their work. They would break out afresh when 
apparently cool, and by no possible means could they be thoroughly 
dried. This, of course, wasted their flesh to a frightful extent, but 
on clipping them it was soon put on again, showing the great 
advantage of the plan. A chronic cough almost always accom- 
panies this state of constant sweat, and it will be lucky for the 
owner of a horse so treated if it does not become acute and put an 
end to the miserable existence of the poor ill-treated brute. The 
case is not always fairly put, as, for instance, by Stewart, in his 
Stable Economy, at page 120, where he says, " A long coat takes 
up a deal of moisture, and is difficult to dry ; but whether wet or 
dry it affords some defence to the skin, which is laid bare to every 
breath of air when deprived of its natural covering. Every one 
must know from himself whether wet clothing and a wet skin, or 
no clothing and a wet skin, is the most disagreeable and danger- 
ous. It is true that clipping saves the groom a great deal of labor. 
He can dry the horse in half the time, and with less than half of 
the exertion which a long coat requires ; but it makes his atten- 
tion and activity more necessary, for the horse is almost sure to 
catch cold, if not dried immediately. When well clothed with 
hair he is in less danger, and not so much dependent on the care 
of his groom." Now, I maintain that this passage is full of falla- 
cies and misstatements. The comparison is not between wet cloth- 
ing aud a wet skin, and no clothing and a wet skin ; but, as I have 
before observed, between a wet long coat and a dry short one. The 
clipping removes the tendency to sweat, or if this secretion is 
poured out it ceases directly the exercise which produced it is 
stopped. But taking Mr. Stewart on his own terms, who has not 
experienced the relief which is afforded by taking off wet gloves 
and exposing the naked hands to the same amount of wind and 
cold ? This is exactly the case as he puts it, and tells directly 
against his argument; but it is scarcely worth while to discuss the 
subject at any length, for I know no horseman of experience in 
the present day who does not advocate the use of the scissors or 
the lamp, whenever the winter coat is much longer than that of 
summer. That horses are occasionally to be met with which show 
little or no change in the autumn I know full well; but these are 
the exceptions to the rule, being few and far between. The vast 
majority would have their hair from one to two inches long if left 
in its natural state, and they would then be wholly unfit for the 
uses to which they were put. We may therefore consider that it 
is admitted to be the best plan to shorten the coat in the autumn, 
and all I have to do is to discuss the best modes of effecting the 
purpose, with a view to decide whether clipping or singeing is to 
be preferred. 

Clipping is seldom performed by any but the professed artist, 



192 THE HORSE. 

inasmuch as it requires great practice to make the shortened coat 
look even and smooth. When a horse is well clipped his skin should 
look as level and almost as glossy as if he had on his ordinary 
summer coat ; but inferior performers are apt to leave ridges in 
various directions, marking each cut of the scissors. It should not 
be done till the new hair has attained nearly its full length, for it 
cannot be repeated at short intervals like singeing. If it is 
attempted too soon the new coat grows unequally, and the skin in 
a fortnight's time looks rough and ragged. A comb and two or 
three pairs of variously curved scissors are all that are required, 
with the exception of a singeing lamp, which must be used at 
last to remove any loose hairs which may have escaped the blades 
of the scissors. Two men generally work together, so as to get the 
operation over in from sixteen to twenty hours, which time it will 
take to clip an averaged-sized horse properly. These men were 
formerly in great demand at the clipping season, and it was extra- 
ordinary how little rest sufficed for them, but now the use of the 
gas singeing-lamp has nearly superseded that of the scissors, and 
clippers are not so much sought after. While the process is going 
on, the horse ought to be clothed as far as possible, careful men 
removing only as much of the quarter piece as is sufficient to 
expose the part they are working at and no more. As soon as the 
wtn-ie body is gone over as well as the legs, the singeing-lamp is 
lightly passed over the surface, which will leave the hair burned to 
such an extent as to require either washing or a sweat, which lat- 
t"* is generally adopted, in the belief that it has a tendency to 
prevent cold. My own opinion is that this is a fallacy, and that 
so^p and water used quickly and rapidly, followed up by a good 
strapping and the use of plenty of warm clothing, is far less likely 
to chill the horse than the exhaustion consequent upon a sweat. 
I have tried the plan repeatedly, and known it tried by others still 
more frequently, but I have never heard of any ill effects resulting. 
Wry often a sweat is exceedingly inconvenient, either from the 
difficulty in getting ground, as happens in towns, or from the in- 
firm state of the legs. But soap and water can always be obtained, 
auo. if carefully used there is uot the slightest danger attending 
them. Of course, after the removal of a long coat the skin requires 
an extra protection in-doors in the shape of a double allowance of 
clothing, and it will be necessary to avoid standing still out of doors, 
though, as I before remarked, on the whole the risk of taking 
cold by horses worked hard enough to sweat them is less if they 
are clipped than if they have their long coats on. 

Singeing requires less practice than clipping, but it cannot he 
done without some little experience of its difficulties, and a novice 
generally burns the skin as well as the hair. To keep a horse s 
coat in good order it must be singed several times in the course of 



SINGEING— SHAVING— TRIMMING. 193 

the autumn, beginning as soon as the new growth has attained a 
length of half an inch beyond what is usual. The singeing-lamp 
is then passed lightly over the whole body, and soap and water 
being used, as I have described under the head of clipping, or a 
sweat given if that plan is preferred, the coat is left for a fortnight 
or three weeks till it has grown another half-inch, when the pro- 
cess is repeated, and again a third, and even a fourth time if 
necessary. On account of these repeated applications of the lamp, 
the professed singer is not so often employed as the clipper, espe- 
cially as the former's work is not so difficult to perform as that of 
the latter. 

The lamp now in common use is attached to a wide copper comb 
made like a rake in principle, and so arranged that the teeth raise 
the hair and draw the ends into the flame. Where gas is procur- 
able the comb is attached to the gas-pipe by a flexible tube, and 
the lamp consists merely in a number of holes perforated along the 
edge of the comb, so that a series of jets of gas are lighted, and 
burn so strongly, that the coat is completely removed as near the 
skin as the teeth of the comb raise it. If gas cannot be obtained, 
a wide wick of cotton is inserted in a flat holder, and the ends pro- 
truding to the level of the teeth, while a reservoir filled with naphtha 
supplies them with that inflammable fluid, a constant flame is main- 
tained, but not nearly equal iu strength to that from gas. As the 
coat is not allowed to grow so long before it is singed, so the cloth- 
ing need not be much increased after its removal, and, indeed, in 
well regulated stables there is little or no change required. Singe- 
ing is performed in less than one quarter the time of clipping, and 
a shilling's worth of naphtha is enough for one horse, unless his 
coat is unusually long. 

Shaving was introduced some years ago to a limited extent, but 
it requires so long a confinement of the horse after it is performed, 
that it was soon abandoned. The hair is lathered and cut off with 
the razor as closely as from the human chin, and unless this is 
done exactly at the right time, the growth subsequently is too short 
or too long. Instances have been known in which horses have 
remained naked until the next spring, and were thereby rendered 
perfectly useless, as they were chilled directly their clothing was 
removed. The only advantage in shaving over clipping is to be 
found in the reduced labor required ; a good razor, or rather set 
of razors, soon going over the surface. But the invention of singe- 
ing did away with this superiority, and the shaving of horses is 
therefore one of the fashions of a day which have now disappeared. 

Trimming. The jaws, nostrils, ears, legs, mane and tail, are all 
more or less subjected to the care of the groom, who removes 
superfluous hairs from each or all by various means, as follows : — 

The jaws, nostrils, and ears are singed, the last named not being 
17 N 



194 THE HORSE. 

touched inside, as the internal hairs are clearly a protection of the 
delicate lining membrane of the ear from the cold and wet. The 
long bristles of the nostrils may either be cut off, pulled out, or 
singed off, but the first plan is the easiest and the most humane. 
There are, also, some bristles about the eyes which are generally 
removed, but it is very doubtful whether many an eye would not 
be saved from a blow in the dark if they were left untouched. 
Fashion, however, dictates their removal, and her orders must 
generally be complied with. The hair which grows an inch or 
more in length beneath the jaw, being of the same nature as the 
rest of the coat, can only be singed off with advantage, and it 
should be done as fast as it grows, especially if the singeing is not 
universal, or there will be a different color presented in these parts. 
Nothing gives a horse such a low-bred appearance as a goat-like 
beard, and the trimming of this part alone will completely alter the 
character of the animal where th3 hair has been at all long. The 
legs are trimmed partly by singeing, and partly either by clipping 
or pulling out the hairs. Great dexterity is required to manage 
this performance in a workmanlike manner, so as to avoid the stale 
and poster-like appearance which is presented by a leg clipped all 
over (without a corresponding clipping of the body), and at the 
same time to remove all, or nearly all, the superfluous hair. In 
the summer, a clipped leg is totally inadmissible, and even from 
the legs of a badly-bred horse the hair may be pulled by gradually 
working at it for a little time every day with the fingers, armed 
with powdered resin. This prevents the hair slipping through 
them, and by its aid such a firm hold may be obtained that, as I 
said before, perseverance will enable the groom to clear the legs 
entirely, with the exception, generally, of a strong lock of hair 
behind the pastern. When this is very obstinate, it is allowable to 
use the scissors to clear away the hair below the horny growth 
which is found there, but there should always be left a slight 
fringe round this, so as to avoid the sharp and stiff outline presented 
by the clipped leg. In the winter, the arms and backs of the 
knees, as well as the bosom and the insides of the quarters, will 
generally want singeing, whether the body is submitted to the lamp 
or not; but in the summer, even if any long hairs are left there, 
they are easily removed by the hand armed with resin. Unless 
general clipping or singeing is practised, the front surfaces of the 
legs do not require trimming at any season of the year. 

The mane is not now usually cut, but formerly it was a very 
common practice to " hog" it, that is, to cut it to a sharp-pointed 
ridge, sticking straight upwards from the crest, and giving that 
part the appearance of extraordinary height. Sometimes, how- 
ever, the mane is very thick, and then for the sake of appearances 
it is necessary to thin it, which is done by twisting a small lock 



TRIMMING. 195 

at a time round the comb, and pulling it out; this gives some 
little pain, but apparently not much, and evidently not more than 
the trimming of the legs, and not so much as in pulling out the 
feelers or bristles growing from the nostrils. A small lock of the 
mane is generally cut just behind the ears where the head of the 
bridle rests, as it would otherwise lie beneath that part in an un- 
tidy manner. 

In trimming the tail various methods are adopted, when it is 
cut square; for if the hairs are allowed to grow to the full length, 
no interference is necessary beyond an occasional clipping of their 
points to prevent them from breaking or splitting. A square tail, 
however, whether long or short, demands the careful use of the 
scissors or knife, without which the horse to which it belongs is 
sadly disfigured. Two modes are practised, — in the first the tail 
is carefully combed out, and then allowing it to fall in its natural 
position, it is gathered up in the hand just above the part to be 
cut off, and here a sharp knife is drawn across it backwards and 
forwards without notching it, till it passes clean through. The 
tail is then released, and any loose hairs projecting are removed 
with the scissors. The second mode is not so easy, but when well 
carried out is more satisfactory to the eye, inasmuch as it is capa- 
ble of giving a sharper and more defined edge to the square tail. 
As in the first method, the tail is carefully combed out; it is then 
held by an assistant's hand, placed beneath the root of the dock, 
as nearly as may be in the position which it assumes in the animal 
out of doors. While thus poised the operator takes a pair of 
sharp scissors, and holding the blades horizontally open, he in- 
sinuates one of them through the middle of the tail at the place 
to be cut, passiug it straight backwards, and cutting the hair 
quite level from the central line to the outside on his own left. 
Then reversing the blades, and keeping to the same level, he cuts 
towards the right, and if he has a good eye and can use his hands 
in accordance with its dictates, he will have presented a very 
prettily squared tail. On the other hand, if these organs are 
defective, or if he wants experience, he will have notched the end 
of the tail in a most unsightly manner. If the groom wishes to 
try his hand in this operation, he should get hold of a long tail, 
and begin far below the point where the squared end is intended 
finally to be. This will afford him five or six experimental cuts, 
and if he cannot satisfy himself, as he nears the proper length, 
that he will be likely to succeed, he can still call in the aid of a 
more skilful operator before it is too late. The hair of the tail 
grows so slowly, that two or three months are required to remove 
the disfigurement which is sometimes caused in this way, and con- 
sequently it behooves the groom to be doubly careful, for his own 
sake as well as his master's. 



196 THE HORSE. 

To make the mane lie smoothly on its proper side, which it 
sometimes obstinately refuses to do, it must be plaited in small 
locks, and the ends loaded with lead, if it cannot be made to lie 
down without. An experienced groom, however, will generally 
succeed in so managing the plaits that they lie close to the neck, 
which is all that can be effected by the aid of lead, but some- 
times the hair is so obstinate that nothing else will effect the 
object in view. 

USE AND APPLICATION OF BANDAGES. 

Bandages are applied to the legs of the horse for three differ- 
ent purposes. First, to give support to the blood-vessels and 
synovial capsules; secondly, as a vehicle for applying cold lotions; 
and thirdly, for drying and warming them. 

For the mere purpose of support either linen or flannel bandages 
may be put on, according to the weather, and the tendency to 
inflammation. The legs of seasoned old horses are seldom so prone 
to become hot as those of young ones, and excepting in very 
warm weather, flannel bandages seem to suit them better than 
linen. On the contrary, if flannel is applied to the legs of a colt, 
even if they are not inclined to inflame, they will become hot and 
uncomfortable, and he will learn to tear them off, in which some 
horses become perfect adepts. Whichever kind of bandage is put 
on, it should be previously tightly rolled with the strings inwards, 
then taking it in the right hand, and unwrapping about six inches, 
they are laid against the canna bone on the side nearest to the 
groom, so that the folds shall have a tendency to unroll from him 
and not to him. While the left hand keeps the end from slip- 
ping, the right passes the roll of bandage closely round the leg 
till it meets the left, when the latter, still pressing the end against 
the leg, lays hold of the roll, and allows the right to be brought 
back to meet it on the other side. After which the coils are re- 
peated till the whole bandage is run out and the leg encased, one 
row being slightly above or below the level of the next, as may 
be required. The great art consists in avoiding unequal pressure, 
and yet giving sufficient to accomplish the purpose for which 
bandaging is designed. From the projection backwards of the 
pastern-joints it is impossible to make the folds lie perfectly 
smooth, and there must be loose parts, which however are covered 
over by the next turn. No written description, however, will 
suffice to teach this little operation, and the young groom should 
watch a good bandager, and imitate him as exactly as he can. 
The strings at the end serve to tie the bandage on, and these also 
must neither be so tight as to cut the leg, nor so loose as to allow 
the bandage to fall down. 

When cold lotions are to be applied by means of bandages, linen 






BANDAGES— MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. 197 

is the proper material, as flannel is too bad a conductor of heat, by 
evaporation, for the purpose. The whole bandage, after being 
rolled up rather tightly, should be dipped in cold water, or in 
the lotion which may be recommended, and then while quite wet 
it is to be applied in the way which I have just described. The 
following lotion is useful for the purpose : — 

Take of Tincture of Arnica a wine-glassful. 
" Nitre £ oz. 
" Sal Ammoniac 1 oz. 
" Water half a bucketful. 
Mix and use by dipping the bandages in before applying them, and by 
wetting them with this solution afterwards by means of a sponge. 

If the groom is careful, he may remove inflammation of the legs 
better by means of dipping them in cold water, or the above lotion 
may be applied with a sponge every half-hour, holding each leg 
over the bucket, than with the aid of bandages. A cold douche 
by means of a forcing garden engine is also extremely beneficial to 
the legs, but it must be used out of doors, as it will wet the litter 
and the walls of the stall if the water is splashed over them within 
doors. 

For Drying and Warming the Legs when the horse is being 
dressed, flannel is the only proper material for bandages. Its mode 
of application is not of much consequence, provided the bandages 
are put on rather loosely, foi* tight pressure has a tendency to 
prevent the return of natural heat, which is so much desired. 
After wetting the legs the bandages should be applied somewhat 
more tightly, so as to absorb the moisture as much as possible. 

MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. 

In the stabled horse the feet require constant care, for 
they are not only artificially shod, but they are allowed to stand 
on a material which is a much worse conductor of heat than the- 
surface of the earth, by nature designed to bear them. Hence, if 
neglected, they either become hard and brittle, or they are allowed 
to be constantly wet, and then the soft covering of the frog is de- 
composed, and emits a disagreeably smelling discharge, which soon 
wastes it away, leaving no other protection to the sensible organ 
beneath, and constituting what is called an ordinary thrush. 
Again, it is found by experience, that not only must the shoes be 
renewed as they wear out, but even if no work is done, and conse- 
quently they are not reduced in size, they no longer fit at the ex- 
piration of about three weeks, and they must then be removed, to 
allow of a portion of the sole and crust being cut away before they 
are again put on. The groom must therefore attend to the follow- 
ing points: — First, to prevent the feet from becoming too dry; 
secondly, to take measures against their becoming thrushy from 
17* 



198 THE HORSE. 

wet; thirdly, to see that the shoes are removed at the end of every 
three weeks, or more frequently if necessary; and fourthly, to 
examine carefully every day that they are securely nailed on with- 
out any of the clenches having started up from the surface, so as 
to endanger the other leg. 

Dryness op the feet is prevented by the use of what is called 
stopping, which is composed either of cow-dung alone, or cow-dung 
and clay mixed, or of cow-dung and pitch. The first is by far the 
most powerful application, but it moistens the sole too much if 
employed every night, and then produces the opposite ovil in the 
shape of thrush. A mixture of equal parts of cow-dung and clay 
may be used every night with advantage, and this I believe to be 
the best of all stoppings. It should be kept in a strong box of 
wood, about a foot long and eight inches wide, with a handle across 
the top, and it should be applied the last thing at night to the soles 
of the fore feet only, by means of a thin piece of wood, a foot long 
and a couple of inches wide, with which the space within the shoe 
is completely stuffed. If the feet are obstinately dry, in spite of 
repeated stoppings with cow-dung alone, which will rarely be the 
case, a table-spoonful of salt may be added to the cow-dung, and 
this will never fail. For most horses stopping with cow-dung alone 
once a week is sufficient, but the groom can judge for himself, by 
their appearance, of the number of stoppings required. If three 
parts of cow-dung and one of clay are used, the feet may be stopped 
twice a week, or, perhaps, every other night, and if equal parts of 
each are adopted as the composition, almost any feet will bear being 
stopped every other night, with the exception of flat or pumiced 
soles, which should never be stopped at all. On the night before 
shoeing, every horse, even if he has flat soles, will be the better for 
having his feet stopped, the application softening the horn so as 
to allow the smith to use his knife to slice it without breaking it 
into crumbling fragments. Several patents have been taken out 
for felt pads, to be soaked in water, and then inserted in the hollow 
of the shoe, but they do not answer nearly so well as cow-dung 
stopping, which has far more emollient qualities than mere water. I 
believe nothing has yet been discovered which has qualities at all 
equal to this old-fashioned natural remedy. 

Thrushes are prevented by keeping the frogs free from ragged 
layers of the elastic substance of which they are partly composed, 
and at the same time by maintaining a dry state of the litter on 
which the horse stands. I am not now considering the manage- 
ment of the horse at grass, where thrushes are generally produced 
when the weather is very wet, or when the pasture is of too marshy 
a character, but the frogs of the stabled horse, which ought never 
to be allowed to be so moist as to become decomposed. Some 
ulcerated conditions of the frog which are still considered to come 



MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. 199 

under the general denomination " thrush," are due to severe in- 
ternal disease of the bones of the foot, and are not caused by mois- 
ture at all. Still these are rare exceptions, and the ordinary thrush 
of the stable may be considered as invariably caused in the latter 
way. Cases are also occasionally to be met with, in which, from 
general grossness of the system, the sensible frog throws off part 
of its horny covering, and secretes a foul matter instead. The 
management of these diseased conditions comes within the province 
of the veterinarian, and I shall therefore not enter upon its con- 
sideration ; but the prevention of the mere decomposition of the 
external surface by moisture is a part of the duties of the groom, 
and so is the application of the proper remedies for it, as soon as 
the nature of the case is clearly made out. Here antiseptic astrin- 
gents, which are quite out of place in inflammatory thrush, are the 
only useful applications, and by their means alone can the decom- 
position be stopped. Of these Sir W. Burnett's solution of chloride 
of zinc is the best, but in mild cases, Condy's fluid, which is the 
permanganate of potass, will answer well, and is not so poisonous 
in its nature if carelessly left about. Friar's Balsam, with as much 
of the sulphate of zinc dissolved in it as it will take up, is the old- 
fashioned grooms' remedy for thrush, and a very good one it is if 
carefully insinuated into the cleft of the frog on a piece of tow 
wetted with it. The grand principle, however, is to prevent thrush 
rather than to cure it, but when horses are bought, or come home 
from grass with it, the curative method must be carried out. 

The removal op the shoes at regular intervals, whether they 
are worn out or not, is a most important part of the duties of the 
groom. On examining the shape of the foot it will be seen that 
the diameter of the circle in contact with the shoe is greater than 
that of the coronet, and hence as the shoe is forced away from its 
original position by the growth of the horn it confines the walls 
to the extent of the difference between the diameter of the foot at 
its old position and that of the part which it now occupies. For 
if two lines from the surface of the coronet on each side were 
continued through the outside surface of the crust to the new seat 
of the shoe, they would be far from parallel, and yet the shoe nails 
must have been carried on in perfect parallel lines on account of 
the unyielding nature of iron. For this reason a shoe, when it 
has not been removed at the end of a month, will be found to lie 
vithin the heel of one side or the other, by which to some extent 
contraction is prevented, but at the expense of the heel, into 
which the corresponding part of the shoe has entered. This is a 
frequent cause of corns, and horses which have once been subject 
to that disease should have their shoes removed once a fortnight. 

One op the most annoying accidents to the horseman is 
the loss of a shoe, whether it happens in the hunting field or on 



200 THE HORSE. 

the road. Some horses can scarcely be prevented by any care of 
their grooms from pulling off a shoe in hunting when they get 
into deep ground, but on the road there is no such excuse, and the 
frequent loss of a shoe by the hack or harness-horse is sufficient 
to condemn the groom of carelessness in this particular. Every 
morning when the feet are picked out it is easy to look the shoes 
over and feel if they are tight. The clenches also ought to be 
examined, and if they are not raised at all it may safely be predi- 
cated that the day's journey will be completed without the shoe 
being lost. A raised clench may severely cut a horse on the inside 
of the other leg, and in those who are predisposed to "speedy 
cut" it may cause severe injury, and perhaps occasion a fall of the 
most dangerous character. 

DAILY EXERCISE. 

Without regular exercise no horse can long be kept in 
health, and I believe that as far as this point is concerned even 
those which are hard-worked would be the better for half an 
hour's airing every morning as soon as they have been fed and 
before they are dressed. But those masters who are particular 
about the mouths of the animals they ride or drive, find that the 
hands of their grooms are generally so heavy that they spoil the 
delicate "feel" on which the comfort and pleasure of riding and 
driving so much depends. Hence in such cases the poor horse is 
condemned to confinement in his stable, not only on the day wjien 
he is to be ridden or driven, but on those also when he is to be 
idle. The health of the body is sacrificed to the maintenance of 
that delicate condition of the mouth which is so highly prized by 
good horsemen and accomplished whips, and I confess that I plead 
guilty to having for a long series of years acted on this principle. 
A fair share of health may be maintained without exercise if the 
work is never interrupted for more than a single day, and at the 
-5ame time there being only one pair of hands to interfere with 
the mouth, its delicacy is not impaired, that is to say if they are 
not as bad as those of the groom. Sometimes a large and smooth 
snaffle is allowed as an exercise bridle, in the hope that it cannot 
injure the mouth, but even this will do mischief if the weight of 
the rider is thrown upon it, as is too often the case. Leaving out 
of the question this objection to the adoption of exercise, there 
can be no doubt that a daily walk out of doors for half an hour 
or an hour, especially if it can be managed on turf, will be of the 
greatest service to the horse's health. 

PROPER TEMPERATURE OF THE STABLE. 

There is scarcely any point upon which there is so much 
difference of opinion, as in relation to the temperature of stables. 



PROPER TEMPERATURE OF STABLE. 201 

Some contend for an amount of heat which would raise Fahren- 
heit's thermometer to 65° or 70°, while others would never have 
their stables, if they could help it, above 45°. So much depends 
upon the kind of horse in them, and the work he has to do, that 
is to say, whether he is much exposed to the cold or not, that no 
rule can be laid down which is applicable to all stables, but I be- 
lieve it may be asserted that none should be above 60°, or below 
50°, if it can be avoided. There are days in the summer season, 
when the air out of doors in the shade stands at 90° or 95°, ind, 
of course, in such weather, it is impossible, even with the doors 
and windows wide open, to keep the stable at a lower degree, or 
even within several points of those above stated. So also, with a 
thermometer scarcely above zero, it will be difficult to keep the 
air wholesome, and yet to prevent its temperature falling lower 
than 45°, which, at such seasons, feels vei'y warm to those who 
come in from the external air. But, with these exceptions, I 
think the rule which I have laid down is a good one. The warmer 
the stable, the better the coat looks, till it is exposed to the 
weather, and even if it is so, it will take no injury if the horse is 
kept moving, but if not, it soon becomes chilled, and not only 
does the general health suffer, but the appearance also. There is, 
however, another, and very serious objection to hot stables, con- 
sisting in their ill-effect upon the legs and feet, which inflame 
much more readily in a warm atmosphere than in a cool one. I 
have often known horses stand severe rattling for months together, 
while standing in a stable which was so cold as to make their coats 
as rough as badgers, but when removed to warmer quarters, they 
have at once gone " all to pieces," their legs or feet becoming in- 
flamed from missing the refrigerating effect of cool air after their 
daily work. The body may easily be kept warm enough by extra 
clothing, and, if necessary, a hood and breastplate may be worn 
all day and all night, but not even wet bandages will cool the legs 
if they are surrounded by hot air. On the whole, therefore, for 
the private gentleman's stable, including those for hunters, hacks, 
and carriage horses, I should advise a regular temperature to be 
preserved as near 55° of Fahrenheit as possible. In coming in 
from the external air this will appear very warm to the sensations, 
but it is far below the high state of heat at which many of our 
stables were kept, until within the last few years. I have often 
known 70° to 75° of Fahrenheit insisted on as the lowest which 
would suffice to get a hunter into condition, but practice proves 
the reverse, and that with plenty of clothing he will do in a cool 
stable of the temperature I have recommended, far better than in 
one possessing a higher range. The celebrated " Nimrod" (Mi. 
Apperley) was a great advoeate for a hot stable, which he thought 
ought never to be reduced much below 70° or 75°: but his 



202 THE HORSE. 

opinions, valuable as they undoubtedly are in the main, cannot be 
looked upon as in all points to be relied on. 

REMEDIES FOR STABLE VICES AND BAD HABITS. 

Crib-biting is a diseased condition of the stomach, for which 
there has never yet been a cure discovered, except on the princi- 
ple of restraint. It may, therefore, be considered under the pre- 
sent head. In crib-biting the teeth are applied to some fixed 
object — generally the manger, so as to afford a fulcrum for the 
muscles of the neck to act from, and by preventing this, or by 
contriving so that the contraction of the muscles of the neck shall 
give pain, the vicious habit is got rid of for the time. The most 
common method is to buckle a leather strap so tightly round the 
neck, just behind the jaw, that when the horse attempts to crib, 
he tightens the muscles of that part, and these being pressed 
against the strap, occasion such pain that the act is not completely 
carried out, and even if it is on the first occasion, the attempt is 
not repeated. The strap is buckled sufficiently tight to do this, 
without much impeding the act of swallowing, or the flow of 
blood from the head, through the jugular veins to the body; but 
in confirmed cribbers no ordinary pressure will suffice, and then 
the head often becomes affected from the impediment which is 
caused to the return of the blood from the brain to the heart. To 
remedy this defect Mr. Cook, Saddler, of Long Acre, two or three 
years ago, invented a neck strap, containing a number of prongs, 
which pass through holes in a spring guard, and unless this is 
strongly pressed, they do not touch the skin. It is applied by 
throat straps to an ordinary head collar, and in slight cases it is 
found to answer most perfectly, but when the vice has become 
confirmed, and the desire to indulge in it is very strong, the pain 
occasioned by the prongs is endured, and no effect at all is pro- 
duced. It is not therefore of much use, as the common strap 
does no injury in those cases where Mr. Cook's is effectual, and 
the latter will not avail when the plain strap is forbidden, on ac- 
count of the extreme pressure required. I cannot, therefore, re- 
commend any plan but such as will totally prevent the prehension 
of the manger, and this is accomplished by one of two ways. In 
the first of these, the manger itself is either concealed, or the 
corn and hay are placed on the ground, in a space slightly sepa- 
rated from the rest of the stall by a row of bricks, or other similar 
bodies, which cannot be laid hold of. To the concealed manger 
and rack there is the objection, that while the horse is feeding, he 
can go on cribbing without interruption, and as this is the time 
chiefly chosen for the act, success is only partly achieved. Plac- 
ing the food on the ground is entirely successful in stopping the 
habit, but it leads to some waste of provender, as the horse is apt 



CRIBBING— KICKING. 



203 



to tread upon it, after which he will refuse to eat it. By far the 
bes.t preventive, in my opinion, is the bar muzzle, consisting in an 
iron frame work, covering the lips and nose, and suspended from 
the head by a leather head collar, so that the lips can reach the 




BAR MOZZLE FOR CRIB-BITERS. 



corn or hay, but the teeth are too wide to pass through the bars 
and seize the manger. This mechanical contrivance is entirely 
harmless, and perfectly effectual, the sole objection to it being 
the fact that it proclaims the wearer to every one who looks into 
the stable as a cribber. This may be a valid reason for rejecting 
its use for dealers' horses, but in a gentleman's stable, utility and 
humanity ought to have precedence of such a feeble argument. 
When the bar muzzle is adopted, it should always be kept on, 
excepting, of course, when the bridle replaces it for work or exer- 
cise, or while the head is being dressed. 

Kicking the wall or stall post is sometimes a very annoy- 
ing trick, and though not always done in a vicious manner, it is 
objectionable, because the kicker is liable to lame himself, or one 
of his neighbors. In mares it is often of a sexual nature, and in 
them it is much more common than in geldings, — the extent to 
which it is carried by them being generally greatest at the begin- 
ning and end of their being " in use." At such times some mares 
go almost mad, if they have an irritating neighbor, who keeps 
smelling them, and I once had one who kicked herself to pieces in 
a paroxysm of this kind, which nothing but tying up the fore-leg 
could restrain. There are several remedies in common use, but 
cone can be relied on in all cases. Foremost among these is the 



204 THE HORSE. 

use of gorse, nailed to the stall-post, which will almost invariably 
quiet a low-bred animal, especially if a gelding, but high-bred 
mares will sometimes kick at it all the more, for the punishment 
they receive. A padded leather strap, buckled round the canna 
bone, with a common sinker attached to it, or, instead of this, a 
few links of heavy chain, will generally keep the horse from kick- 
ins, because in making the attempt he gives his coronet and pastern 
a heavy blow. If, however, this plan is unsuccessful, it is liable to 
cause lameness, from the inflammation produced by the blows, 
and, therefore, the effect must be carefully watched. Few horses 
kick out with both legs, and a pair of hobbles buckled round the 
hind fetlocks will, in a vast majority of cases, put an end to the 
trick as long as they are worn, without any risk, or producing 
any serious annoyance, save only what is inseparably connected 
with the prohibition of the indulgence in the desire to kick. A 
narrow strap buckled round the part just above the hock, so as to 
confine the ham string, will have the desired effect, by giving in- 
tense pain when any attempt to strike out is made, but is a most 
annoying infliction to the horse, and generally prevents his lying 
down, from the necessity which there is for bending the hock, in 
reaching the ground. I should, therefore, give the preference to 
the bunch of gorse, or if that is not readily procurable, to the sinker 
of wood or iron suspended to a strap round the leg. 

In scratching the ear with the hind foot, the horse is very 
apt to get his leg over the collar rein, if the sinker is not heavy 
enough to keep the rein tightly strained between the head collar 
and the ring in the manger. Impatient animals, also, which are 
continually pawing at their litter, will sometimes get one of their 
fore feet over it, but this is not so serious an accident. To pre- 
vent the mischief occasioned in either case by the struggles to get 
free, especially when the hind leg is thus caught, the rings for the 
collar reins are sometimes made to draw down with a spring-catch, 
which releases them when pulled in that direction, but in no other. 
When, however, the sinker is properly weighted, it is almost im- 
possible for such an accident to occur ; and this simple invention 
has now become obsolete. 

Tearing the clothes off is by no means an unusual stable 
habit, and it is one very difficult to cure. There are two effectual 
preventives, however : oue of which consists in the regular employ- 
ment of a rough horsehair cloth, made like that for hops, outside 
the rug, and which is so disagreeable to the teeth, that no horse 
will attempt to tear it; the other is carried out by means of a pole 
of ash, about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, with an iron 
eye attached to each end. One of these is fastened, by means of 
a short leathern strap and buckle, to the side of the roller-pad, 



STABLE VICES. 205 

ivhile the other has a strap or chain about a foot long, which 
attaches it to the head collar. The pole should reach about fifteen 
inches beyond the point of the shoulder, and it should be fixed on 
the side which is generally uppermost when the horse lies down, 
so as not to be under him in that position. It is a very simple and 
cheap apparatus, and any village blacksmith can make and apply 
it. The following engraving will illustrate my meaning better than 
the most detailed description without it. 




REMEDY FOR TEARING THE CLOTHES. 



Weaving is a mark of an irritable nervous system, beyond 
which it is harmless, but quite incurable. It consists in a perpetual 
moving of the head from one side of the manger to the other, with 
an action like that of a wild beast in his den. The constant friction 
soon wears out the collar-reins when there are two, and on that 
account a single rein may be adopted in this particular instance 
with advantage. 

> Eating the litter is a peculiar appetite, which chiefly occurs 
either in those horses which are kept short of hay on account of 
their tendency to fatten, or when the animal possessing it has been 



206 THE HORSE. 

stabled for a very long time together and requires a change. In 
the former case nothing but the muzzle will be of the slightest 
service, but in the latter a run at grass, or soiling indoors for a 
month or two, will remedy the disorder of the stomach. Rock salt 
in the manger will sometimes have the desired effect, producing a 
degree of thirst which will make dry litter distasteful. 

Kicking and biting savagely are marks of actual vice, and 
scarcely come within the limits of the present section. Still the 
groom must know how to guard against them in the best way, so 
'xs to save himself from danger without unnecessarily punishing the 
horse. There are some animals which cannot be effectually re- 
strained without severity, but on the average, kindness and firm- 
ness united will overcome any horse. Sometimes it is necessary 
to put on the muzzle while the dressing is going on, but this is 
chiefly because the skin is so irritable that the brush or whisp 
excite sensations which lead to the use of the teeth or hind legs 
to prevent their recurrence. In such cases as these Mr. Rarey's 
method of subduing a savage horse is extremely valuable. 

PREPARATION FOR WORK. 

1 have already observed that these pages are not in- 
tended to serve as a guide for the trainer of the race-horse, and 
that they chiefly apply to the management of the hunter, hack, 
and carriage-horse belonging to the private gentleman. The de- 
scription of the mode of preparation for work will therefore include 
the mode of fitting the hunter for his duties, and of getting the 
hack and carriage-horse into condition, from the state in which 
they are usually first brought into the stable, either from grass or 
the dealer's hands. 

In the present day, the hunter is prepared almost as care- 
fully as the race-horse or steeple-chaser, when he is intended for 
any of the grass countries. Nothing short of a regular preparation 
will enable a horse to go through a fast thing in Northamptonshire 
or Leicestershire, and no man in his senses would ride a horse 
there in the front rank, unless he was thoroughly fit. The stud- 
groom, therefore, requires for his purpose a training-ground where 
he can give his horses their sweats, without which it would be 
impossible to get them into condition. A very large space is not 
necessary, but a very small one will not suffice, the constant turning 
incidental to a limited gallop producing a great strain upon the 
joints. If possible a gallop measuring at least a mile and a half 
or two miles in circumference should be obtained, and with this 
length, including a moderate rise in its extent so as to open the 
horse's pipes well at the finish of the sweat, it is the groom's fault 
if his charge is not brought out thoroughly fit when the hunting 
season commences. Of course, when making this assertion, I am 



PREPARATION FOR WORK. 207 

calculating that he has been allowed sufficient time, which will 
depend greatly upon the state in which he finds his horses in 
August. If they have been at grass, it is almost impossible to get 
them ready by the middle of November, but a well summered 
horse soiled in a loose-box with a proper allowance of corn, may 
be thoroughly prepared by that time if he is set to work by the 
middle of August. This will allow of two clear preparations, with 
an intervening week for cooling physic. Should the horse be up 
from grass, another month or six weeks at least will be required, 
which must be employed in giving him nothing but walking exer- 
cise, with a dose of physic at the beginning, and repeated at the 
end of three weeks or a month. Horses at grass in the summer 
are seldom allowed any corn, and the change from grass to the 
more stimulating food of the stable must be made gradually, or 
some of the important organs will assuredly fail. Hence the 
necessity for extra time, and the addition which I have made to 
the calculated period for conditioning a hunter summered indoors, 
is barely sufficient for this purpose, when he is full of grass or of 
the fattening food which is given to make him up for the dealers. 
In either case great care and some experience are necessary in 
altering the entire management of the animal, so as to give him 
corn and exercise enough to prepare his frame gradually for the 
strains which it will have to bear in the hunting field, without 
producing inflammation. With all the objections which I hold to 
physic, I must confess that here I think it to be indispensable ; 
and invariably, as soon as a raw horse is settled in the stable, I 
should get him thoroughly cleaned out before I began to give him 
hay and corn. I have always found it advantageous just to allow 
a couple of days to elapse before giving the physic, which will 
serve to fill the large bowels with the new kind of food. A mash 
should then be administered at night, and repeated if necessary till 
it has had the desired effect in softening the dung, when the physic 
may be given. Two or three days will elapse before it has set 
sufficiently to allow of walking exercise ; but as soon as this can be 
ordered with safety, the horse should be walked out twice a day 
for an hour and a half each time, or two hours in the morning and 
one in the evening, whichever may be preferred. The division of 
the exercise into two periods is far better than keeping the green 
horse out for so long a time as three hours, which will make him 
weary ; whereas, the shorter period will not tire any horse, and a 
mid-day rest will restore his whole frame, and enable him to go 
out again in the evening as cheerfully as ever. I need scarcely 
observe that the shoes should be attended to, and the feet put in 
proper order, for three hours' walking exercise in ill-fitting shoes 
will do great harm, especially to feet that are not accustomed to 
their pressure. By persevering with steady slow work, and feeding 



208 THE HORSE. 

on a moderate allowance of hay and corn, the latter not exceeding 
two feeds at first aud three at the end of the month, the horse will 
be ready by the middle of August to have a second dose of physic, 
after which he may commence in earnest his first real preparation. 
This also is chiefly confined to slow work, but if the horse is gross 
he may have in the course of the four or five weeks to which it 
extends, one or two sweats of moderate length and speed. Great 
caution must always be exercised by the groom at this time ; on no 
account should any fast work be given, unless he is satisfied that 
his horse is in perfect health and in good spirits. Every increase 
in the food and work should be carefully watched, and its effects 
noted, so as to guide him in deciding whether he can venture to 
take another step. It must be remembered that hitherto the feeds 
of corn have been only three quarterns of oats daily, and the exer- 
cise has not extended beyond a walk ; but during the next few 
weeks the former must be doubled, or nearly so, and the latter must 
go on into a daily slow trot of two or three miles on turf, with an 
occasional steady gallop in place of this, and, as I have before 
remarked, one or two sweats if the system is overloaded with fat. 
But unless the hunter is very fleshy, nothing more than slow trots 
and canters will be required until after the next dose of physic. 
The increase in the quantity of corn will seldom tend to put on 
fat, and as the amount of hay should be small, not exceeding lOlbs. 
a day, unless the horse is gross in his nature, he will have put on 
muscle, and lost some of the internal fat which is so prejudicial to 
condition. 

The object op the sweating process is to remove super- 
fluous fatty matters, which act prejudicially in a twofold manner. 
In the first place the fat itself is so much dead weight to carry, 
and on the calculation that seven pounds are equal to a distance in 
an average length of race, it may readily be understood that the 
huge quantity of adipose tissue, which is carried by a fat horse, 
will, by its weight alone, retard any attempt at high speed. But, 
not only is fat to be objected to on this score ; for it is also known 
by experience, that its pressure on the important internal organs, 
when it is deposited around them, interferes with the proper per- 
formance of their several functions. The muscles of the limbs, 
when they are marbled with fat, as we see them in the slaughtered 
ox and sheep, are unable to contract vigorously, but when a simi- 
lar condition occurs in the muscular tissue of which the heart is 
composed, violent exertions are interdicted, or, if they are attempted, 
they are attended with dangerous and often fatal results. Again, 
it is ascertained that sweating has a local, as well as a general 
effect, and that, by producing a copious discharge of fluid from the 
skin covering any particular part, there will be a removal of any 
superfluous fat which may be It iged beneath it, before the rest of 



SWEATING. 209 

the body is perceptibly acted on. Hence, when the groom thinks 
that his horse is loaded with fat about the heart, he puts on extra 
" sweaters" over that part, or on the contrary, if his object is to 
unload the ridge of dense adipose membrane, which constitutes a 
high crest, he puts on two or three extra hoods, and sweats chiefly 
in that region of the body. The local effect of these partial 
sweats is, perhaps, a good deal overrated, but undoubtedly there is 
some foundation for the general belief. The use of clothing for 
sweating is not nearly so frequent as it used to be, even in racing 
stables, and horses are not now drawn so fine, by a great deal, as 
they were twenty or thirty years ago. At that time runners in 
the Derby, or in any other great race, when they were saddled, 
looked like living skeletons, and to an eye unaccustomed to the 
hard lines presented by tbeir limbs, the beauty of their forms was 
entirely gone. Now a different system prevails ; the object is not 
to reduce the horse as much as he will bear, but to bring him out 
as big as he can be, consistently with good wind. The celebrated 
trainer, John Scott, has shown what can be done in this way, and 
his example is now generally followed. So also with hunters, 
although they are often required to do more, perhaps, than any 
other variety of the horse, and in the grass countries are made as 
fit as if they were going to run in a steeplechase, yet they are 
brought to covert looking big and full of muscle, without any 
pretensions to be considered as drawn fine. Still the sweat, either 
in clothes or without them, must be occasionally carried out, or the 
internal organs will continue loaded with fat, as is natural to them 
when they have been for some time in a state of rest, coupled with 
high feeding. The use and amount of sweaters must be propor- 
tioned to the constitutional peculiarities of the individual ; in one 
horse a slow gallop will produce a perfect lather on the skin, while 
in another treated in all respects in the same way, there shall be 
hardly a hair turned. So also the effect of apparently the same 
degree of sweating on different horses is very variable, producing 
a great relief in one case, and scarcely any in another. The groom 
must not attempt to carry out any fixed rule, but must watch the 
effect of each day's work, and increase or diminish the amount 
next day according to circumstances. 

As I before remarked, a sweat may be with clothes or with- 
out, the object in each case being not so much to do a certain 
amount of work, but to get rid of a fixed quantity of superfluous 
fat and humors. On the other hand, a gallop has quite the oppo- 
site end in view, being intended to brace the muscles, heart, blood- 
vessels and lungs, by stimulating them to act in an extraordinary 
degree, but without any view to reduce the weight of the body or 
any part of it. In a sweat, therefore, the pace is slow and long 
continued ; no exertion is made to render it smart, or to develop 
18* o 



210 THE HORSE. 

action in any shape, the whole attention of the groom being devoted 
to the single object which is connected with the removal of fat. 
It is usual, therefore, to send the horse along at a slow, steady, 
hand-gallop for four miles, or in very gross animals for five or six, 
the last half mile only being done at anything like a fast pace, and 
even then the horse should not be extended to the utmost, on 
account of the great extra weight he has to carry, if he has two or 
three sweating blankets on. It is quite necessary to bear in mind 
this special object of the sweat, inasmuch as it has lately become 
the fashion to sweat without either clothing or exercise, by means 
of the Turkish bath. The opponents of this practice contend that 
it can never supersede the old plan, because, though it will get rid 
of superfluities, it will not develop muscle ; but they forget that it 
is not used for the latter purpose, but is solely confined to the one 
object, which by the employment of sweating blankets out of doors 
is accompanied with considerable risk. The Turkish bath is, in 
fact, a means to one end only, and must not be employed for any 
other. No horse could have his muscles and heart, his wind and 
limbs, made more wiry and enduring than before by any number of 
baths; but he may be put into a condition which shall fit him for 
being so, without the risk to the legs and feet which a number of 
sweats in heavy clothing will always cause. No wonder, therefore, 
that trainers eagerly resort to the use of the bath, especially as 
every year their horses seem to be getting more and more liable to 
break down. It is quite true that the old fashioned sweat com- 
bines muscular exercise with the process of unloading the system, 
but in so doing, the time of the groom is the only thing saved, and 
no one would take that into the calculation, as being worthy of 
consideration. In the new mode, when he is too gross, the horse 
is sweated on one day, and on the next he may be galloped, if 
necessary, the bath producing so little fatigue, that he may have 
any amount of exercise directly after it, to which he is accustomed. 
Newmarket trainers are not very easily induced to adopt a novelty, 
but many of them have made up their minds as to the advantages 
of the bath, and several of those who are to be regarded as the 
highest authorities, have erected one on their premises. In resort- 
ing to the bath at first the attempt was made to save doubtful legs 
only, but the good effect was soon found to extend beyond this, and 
in almost all cases where there would be any necessity for sweats 
and clothing, the Turkish bath is adopted instead, by those who 
have the means at their disposal. I shall, therefore, describe each 
of these plans in detail. 

ORDINARY SWEATING. 

When the old fashioned sweat is intended to be given, and 
it is not proposed to reduce any part in particular, it is usual to 






SWEATING. 211 

put on an old rug next the skin, or, in 'large stables, a sheet kept ex- 
pressly for the purpose, and hence called a " sweater ;" then an 
old hood and breast-cloth, next a second quarter-piece is put on, 
and even a third in some cases, and lastly, a complete set of clothing 
over all, the saddle, as usual, completing the arrangement. If any 
special part is to be reduced, as, for instance, the brisket or bosom, 
an extra cloth is folded like a shawl, and the ends being crossed 
over the withers, it is kept in its place under the breast-cloth, by 
the pressure of the saddle ; or a rug may be folded and placed 
round the chest, without extending to the loins, in case the heart 
is supposed to be oppressed with fat. All these points of detail 
will call upon the groom for an exercise of ingenuity and tact, and 
if he possesses these qualities, he will have no difficulty in placing 
his sweaters where they will be required. When they are all 
securely fixed the horse is ridden out, and after walking for a short 
time to empty himself, he is started off to go his sweat, which is 
generally four miles, doing three quarters of the distance at a slow 
pace, and then being set going a little faster, and at last brought 
out to his top-speed, if in full training, or nearly so if in his second 
preparation. By his top-speed, however, is not to be understood 
the very outside pace which can be got out of the horse, but only 
such a speed as is short of that by so much as will preserve his 
stride in full vigor, and prevent that over-pacing which leads to 
the rupture of muscular or tendinous structure. In his first prepa- 
ration he should seldom be extended, and it is better to increase 
the distance rather than to accelerate the speed beyond the steady 
gallop ; but few horses refuse to sweat at a slow pace in this stage 
of training. 

As soon as he has finished the distance, the trainer examines 
his state, and either directs him to be walked or trotted on to the 
rubbing place, which should be a box set apart for the purpose, 
either on the training-ground or at the usual stables ; or if the 
ground is at a distance from any available stable, the shelter of a 
haystack or high hedge should be sought for. The full benefit of 
the sweat is not obtained unless the fluid is scraped off before it 
has had time to be re-absorbed, which is the result, if it is allowed to 
remain on the skin after this has ceased to give out any fluid. Its 
vessels in that case, instead of perspiring, adopt the opposite ex- 
treme, and appropriate the sweat by their own power of absorption ; 
thus doing away with the chief benefit which was expected and 
desired from the sweat itself. When the hand of the groom, ap- 
plied to the shoulder of the horse under his breast-cloth, tells him 
that the sweat is coming kindly, the horse may have a couple of 
rugs heaped upon him, and be suffered to give out fluid for a very 
few minutes only; but if it does not break out at once, three or four 
must be put on him, and he must wait a quarter of an hour or 



212 THE HORSE. 

twenty minutes before he is fit to scrape. If lie sweats freely, the 
groom in charge of his head may rub his ears and wipe his eyes, 
so as to refresh him slightly; but if there is any difficulty in bring- 
ing on the sweat this will only retard the process, and he may be 
allowed to stand quite quietly, and without any attempt to refresh 
him by the above little attentions, or by rubbing his legs, or wiping 
his thighs or bosom. As soon as the groom is satisfied, the hood 
is taken off, and the head and neck rapidly scraped, together with 
the bosom, from which the breast-cloth is removed, and the rugs and 
quarter-piece turned back so as to expose the whole neck and the 
points of the shoulders. One or two strappers may be employed 
in scraping and afterwards drying this part, besides the one holding 
the bridle; but if the horse is quiet enough, this may be removed, 
and the head dressed all the more effectually. A very few minutes 
suffice for drying this half of the horse, when the bridle should be 
readjusted, and the quarter-piece and sweaters wholly turned off 
over the croup ; upon this the strappers again set to work with their 
scrapers and rubbers, they soon get rid of every particle of sweat, 
and have the coat perfectly dry and smooth. Much depends upon 
the stage of training; in the early part, the sweat is profuse, thick, 
and soapy, and takes more time to dry; while in the latter stages, 
when the horse is getting fit, it is watery and scanty, the horse will 
scarcely scrape, and dries without the slightest trouble. This is a 
good sign of condition, and the necessity for a repetition of the 
sweat may generally be gathered by the appearance of the fluid, 
which, when thick and lathery, shows that there is much gross fat 
in the system requiring removal ; but, nevertheless, it also shows 
that great care must be taken in the process, lest mischief should 
be done, by calling upon nature too rapidly while the animal is in 
this fat state, and liable to inflammation of all kinds. After rub- 
bing all the coat dry, and smoothing it down with the leather 
rubber, the usual clothing should be put on, and the horse allowed 
his exercise, which he may have as usual, care being taken that 
he does not catch cold if the weather is severe. The reason wby 
the horse is taken out again is, that if he were left in the warm 
stable he would break out into a second sweat, and if he were placed 
in a cool one he would surely take cold. Walking exercise, there- 
fore, with a short canter, is adopted as a means of avoiding both 
of these injurious conditions; but he should not continue it longer 
than to put him into a cool state, and restore his nerves and blood- 
vessels to their usual condition. The length of ground and pace 
for sweating vary with the age, condition, and purpose for which 
the horse is trained, the maximum length being six miles, and the 
minimum two to three, with a speed varying with every individual 
case, and depending upon the age, breed, and action of the horse, 
as well as his constitution and legs, and the state of preparation in 



THE TURKISH BATH. 213 

which he is. Sweats are given at periods varying from once a 
week to once a fortnight after the first preparation, but seldom so 
often during that time. When sweats are given without clothing, 
they are in other respects just the same as described above, and 
the strappers are required in a similar way to dry the horse at 
once ; but the quantity of sweat is not nearly so great, and two 
good hands will generally suffice for the purpose. In almost all 
cases, even where clothing is not used, it is heaped on when the 
horse is taken into the stable, in order to encourage the flow of 
perspiration. 

THE TURKISH BATH. 

The Turkish bath when employed for horses, requhes two 
boxes to be prepared, contiguous to each other, and, if economy is 
an object, to the saddle-room also, in order that one fire shall serve 
for all. The annexed plan has been carried out on this principle, 
the fire-place A being placed in the saddle-room, and heating it, as 
well as a boiler for hot water. It is sunk eighteen inches beneath 
the floor of the saddle-room, so as to allow of the commencement 
of the flue at B entering the bath-room, with its bottom two feet 
from the floor of that apartment, and to pass beneath the final exit 
of the flue, as it leaves to enter the chimney at F. The flue is 
supported on arches, clear of the wall, from B to C rising two 
inches in the foot, so that when it reaches the corner G, its bottom 
is four feet from the ground. It is built exactly like the usual 
flue of a hot-house, with dampers, and all the arrangements pecu- 
liar to that apparatus. From C to D it may be either on arches, 
or supported on slate built into the wall, as the heat is from this 
point not sufficient to crack that material. At D the bottom is 
about six feet high, and when it reaches the entrance B, it will 
give plenty of head room for a horse to pass beneath. On this 
side it is built in the wall, but still on arches so as to expose as 
large a radiating surface as possible, and serves to heat the other 
box H to the temperature required to prepare the horse for his 
sweat. Finally, it passes along the upper part of the fourth wall, 
in which also it is built in the same manner, and makes its exit 
over the part where it entered, at F. Here the flues are so arranged 
by dampers, that the current of warm air may either be directed 
along the flue B C D E F, or it may be turned off into the chim- 
ney F, entirely or partially. Ventilators must be introduced freely 
in the walls, so as to give plenty of fresh air when it is required, 
or to shut it off completely, to raise the temperature to the proper 
degree before the horse is admitted. One or two valves, in addi- 
tion to the door I, all capable of being opened and closed at will, 
must also be fixed in the wall, between the boxes G- and H, and 
by their means, added to the heat given off by the flue in it, this 
preparatory-box may be heated to 80° or 90° of Fahrenheit, so as 



214 



THE HORSE. 











T 



to bring on a gentle action of the skin, before the horse is intro- 
duced to the actual sweating-bos — Gr. The preparatory-box, H, 
may be fitted up bke a common loose-box, and may be used as 
such, whenever the bath is not required, but the latter should have 



THE TURKISH BATH. 215 

no manger or any other projecting body of metal, for when the 
heat is raised to 160°, the contact with the teeth and tongue is by 
no means pleasant. Tan forms the best material for the floor, or, if 
this cannot readily be obtained, sawdust will answer nearly as well, 
if the wetted parts are changed after each bath. A brick floor 
feels too warm to the feet, and when the bath is given very hot, it 
may injure them, if uncovered by some non-conductor of heat, so 
that it is better to avoid all risk, by using tan or sawdust. With 
this apparatus in working order, and the fire lighted in the stove 
A, the box H is heated to 80° or 90° of Fahrenheit, by robbing 
G- of its warm air through the open door I, and the valves in the 
wall between the two to which I have already alluded. As soon 
as this is prepared, the horse is brought into it with his clothing 
on, and allowed to remain for a short time, which may be twenty 
minutes, half an hour, or an hour, according to the state of his 
skin, and the warmth of the box. As soon as he is settled in it, 
the clothes may all be removed, and here he may remain, with a 
whisp of hay in the rack, to amuse him, and chilled water in the 
tank, till his skin shows evident symptoms of breaking out, and the 
bath is prepared, that is, until the latter is raised to a temperature 
of 140° at the least. To effect this the door I and the adjacent 
valves may have been closed, if necessary; for a small box once 
raised to 80° or 90°, will keep its temperature with the horse in it 
for the time which is required. The groom must be careful not 
on any account to take his charge into the bath till his skin is 
beginning to sweat, for if he does, the blood may be driven too 
forcibly to the brain, without the relief which is afforded by the 
natural discharge from the skin, and dangerous mischief may be 
produced. On being taken into the bath Gr, a bucket of chilled 
water is placed within reach, and he is tied up with his head in 
the corner nearest the entrance door, which must be left open, so 
as to allow him plenty of fresh air. In about a quarter of an hour 
the sweat begins to pour out in large volumes, and this should be 
encouraged by friction with the hand, which may be guarded with 
horsehair gloves. As it becomes very profuse, a scraper may be 
applied occasionally, but two grooms, each with horsehair gloves 
on, will be able to remove it by keeping up continuous, deep, and 
steady pressure upon the skin, so as at once to squeeze out the 
watery particles from the hair, and to remove any scurf and other 
tenacious matters which accumulate there. According to the 
amount of reduction which is required to be made in the fatty de- 
posits, and to the action of the skin, will be the time required to 
be devoted to this operation, but in general it is completed in half 
an hour. Some horses, however, have been kept sweating for a 
full hour, as I am informed, witrout apparent injury, and have 
afterwards gone out to exercise as full of life as ever. Indeed, it 



216 THE HORSE. 

is said that the effect is usually to increase the spirits arid liveli- 
ness of all the horses submitted to it. During the operation of the 
bath, the preparatory room should have had its doors and windows 
thrown freely open, and it should be left in this state when the 
horse returns to it, some grooms liking to have a strong draught 
through it while the horse is being cooled. In this process there 
is a considerable variation in the practices adopted in those stables 
where this novel kind of sweating is introduced. Some grooms 
wash the horse all over with cold water ; others dash the water 
over the whole body the moment he comes from the bath, while 
a third set content themselves with the free admission of a current 
of cold air to the skin. Time must determine which of these plans 
is the best, but I am told on excellent authority, that they have 
all been tried with advantage. The fact is that when the skin is 
sweating freely under the stimulus of heat, and before its vessels 
are beginning to flag in their action, cold in any shape may be ap- 
plied, so long as it is not continued long enough to reduce the 
pulse below its natural standard. Again, there are some grooms, 
who, after they have applied cold water, return the horse to the 
bath for a few minutes, the air in it being reduced to about 100° 
of Fahrenheit, and on bringing him out, take him at once to his 
box or stall, when he is dressed as usual, till he is perfectly dry, 
after which he is clothed and fed. 

As may naturally be expected, " the stable mind" is very 
much agitated by this innovation on established usages. On the 
one hand, it is argued by the thick-and-thin supporters of the bath, 
that, with the aid of walking exercise alone, and without a single 
gallop, a horse may be got into perfect condition, either for the 
race-course or the hunting-field. I have been told by a gentleman 
whose authority is fairly to be relied on, that he has ridden a 
stableful of horses thus prepared, in the front ranks of the crack 
countries, and that he never was so well carried in his life. None 
of them were galloped, except by himself; and until the season 
(1860-1) began, not one of them had been taken off a walk, as far 
as he knew, and he said he had the greatest confidence in his 
groom. On the other hand, the opponents of the bath hold that 
it only removes fat and fluids of all kinds, and that fast work must 
be given to the same extent as without it, the additional sweat 
produced by the former exhausting the horse very materially, to 
the prejudice of his condition. As far as my own opinion goes, I 
am inclined to believe that the truth lies between these opposite 
extremes ; and that though a horse may be made light and airy by 
means of the bath and walking exercise alone, his muscles cannot 
be braced and rendered bigger, as they are by actual fast work. 
Incredible as it may appear, I have been told on very high author- 
ity, that a horse sweated twi :e, or even three times in the week. 



r ."HE TUKKISH BATH— PHYSIC. 217 

will do as m jch work, and as fast too, as if he had not gone through 
the process. If the bath has removed all fat and humor, he will 
not sweat in his gallops ; and if any of either is left, it will do him 
no harm to get rid of it. Indeed, after all, the difference from the 
old plan of sweating in the stable without exercise is not very great 
in principle ; and that was always found to be of service wben the 
legs or feet were unsound. Under that plan, the horse was heavily 
clothed, and being just gently trotted, was taken back to his box, 
loaded with more clothes until he sweated freely, and was thus re- 
lieved of his fat without being galloped. 

PHYSIC. 

In my previous remarks I have alluded to physic as neces- 
sary for the purpose of getting rid of the food which the horse may 
have been taking, before he comes into the stable, without injury, 
but the effects of which are somewhat in opposition to the condi- 
tion required for hard work. In addition to this object, however, 
physic is given with several other purposes in view ; but these may 
be said to bring it within the province of the veterinarian rather 
than of the groom. Thus, in the horse recently brought up from 
grass, it will often be necessary to expel worms ; and though the 
experienced groom may be able to do this without risk, yet it is 
scarcely safe to recommend the young hand to attempt the task. 
At all events, if he does, he must be guided by the directions given 
in another part of this book ; and I shall merely direct my attention 
to the effects of physic — firstly, in getting rid of injurious food; 
secondly, in cooling the stomach and general system, and thus 
enabling the latter to bear the increased stimulus afforded by extra 
food; and thirdly, to get rid of internal fat and humors in conjunc- 
tion with sweating. 

To THE EFFECTS OF PHYSIC IN GETTING RID OF INJURIOUS 

FOOD, I have already alluded; but I may here mention two or three 
circumstances which will serve to modify the dose, or to forbid it 
altogether. Curiously enough, when a horse comes in from grass, 
his bowels being in the usual loose state which accompanies that 
kind of feeding, he will generally require more aloes than when 
fed upon dry food. The reason of this seeming paradox is simple 
enough : his bowels have become accustomed to the stimulus pre- 
sented by grass to their lining membrane, and are not easily roused 
to action by aloes, which is only a vegetable, still more stimulating, 
it is true, but simply in degree. A man accustomed to drink, will 
not be so much affected by swallowing a pint of brandy, even if he 
is already half drunk, as a perfectly sober man would be, if he had 
not previously been inured by long usage to its effects. The groom 
must not, therefore, fancy that a physic-ball of three drachms, or 
even sometimes four drachms, will be sure to act on a horse of 
19 



218 THE HORSE. 

average size and constitution, just up from grass; for he will find 
from four and a half to five and a half drachms more likely to serve 
his purpose. Unless he knows the constitution of the animal, he 
had better content himself with the former; but generally this 
quantity will not have much appreciable effect beyond a very gentle 
clearing out of the bowels. No mash is necessary, because the 
grass has already prepared the bowels quite sufficiently. Of course, 
if the horse is already too low in flesh, no physic should be given 
at this time. 

The cooling powers op physic are those which render it 
particularly valuable in aiding the preparation of the horse for fast 
work. If at any time the legs become hot, a dose will carry off 
the plethoric condition which shows itself in this way, and the rest 
which must be given after it will assist in relieving them. At 
this time, a mash should always precede the physic ; and a second 
on the following night will often be necessary before the dose can 
safely be given. The same effect would be produced by perma- 
nently taking away some of the corn ; but this would put an end 
to the preparation altogether, and it is to avoid this alternative 
that the physic is given. The old plan was in all cases to give a 
course of three doses, at intervals of nine days, to every horse when 
first taken into work; but if plenty of walking exercise is used, and 
the corn is gradually increased, with an ounce of nitre in the mash 
every Saturday night, this routine is quite unnecessary, and a 
couple of doses at the intervals I have fixed will suffice. Very 
gross, lusty horses will, perhaps, require one, or even two addi- 
tional doses; and, on the contrary, light herring-gutted animals 
wil: do without any. The art of the groom consists in fixing upon 
the proper quantum, beyond or below which he ought not to go. 

The third object op physic is that which is superseded by 
the use of the Turkish bath, with much less injury to the system. 
Both act by removing superfluous fluids from the body, through 
the agency of the blood-vessels, absorbents, and secreting organs ; 
all of which must co-operate in either case. The fluids lie stored 
up in the meshes of the cellular membrane, either in the shape of 
oily or watery matters. To remove them, the blood in circulation 
must first be called upon to part with some of its corresponding 
materials, which it does either through the mucous membrane of 
the bowels, when physic is given, or by means of the skin, when 
sweating is adopted. This sudden drain from the blood is then 
made up from the store which has been previously taken from it, 
and laid by in case of such an emergency ; and thus, though the ex- 
ternal means employed are very different, the real effect is the 
same. Both drain the blood of large quantities of water, contain- 
ing certain soluble matters ; and this sudden call upon the vital 
fluid compels its vessels to fall back upon the stored-up materials 






PHYSIC— FINAL PREPARATION. 219 

which are lodged around the heart and other internal organs, and 
which it is the grand object of the training-groom to remove. 

But the effects of physic are not always so simple and inno- 
cent as those to which I have alluded. A strong horse is some- 
times over-purged by a very mild dose, and a weak one will occa- 
sionally die from this cause. Hence, this agent should not be idly 
used ; and not only is it actually dangerous to life in some few 
cases, but it weakens the tone of the stomach in many more. Still, 
in the majority of horses, a well-mixed physic-ball, carefully given, 
and followed by proper management, will freshen the ligestive 
organs rather than weaken them, and may be regarded as a most 
valuable addition to the resources of the groom. 

FINAL PREPARATION. 

To GET A hunter thoroughly fit, he must not only have 
gone through the preparatory work which I have described, but 
he must undergo a further winding up, according to the old- 
established rule on the subject, and irrespective of the vexed ques- 
tions connected with the Turkish bath, which may be considered 
to be yet in abeyance. Having had a gentle dose of physic at the 
end of his first preparation, he is proceeded with as follows : — 
Every day he is walked out for three or four hours, either at one 
or two periods of the day. If he is thorough-bred, he will bear 
some brisk gallops and one or two sweats, with or without clothing, 
every week ; but half-breeds do not stand much fast work, and are 
better confined to walking and trotting exercise, with an occasional 
spirt of half a mile. These low-bred animals cannot bear any liber- 
ties to be taken with their systems ; and I am told that with them 
the Turkish bath is far more effectual than with the horse of pure 
Eastern blood. I can easily imagine this, as I know how badly 
the former class bear reduction, and yet how important it is to 
clear their wind. The feeding should be confined to oats and- hay, 
with a bran-mash on Saturday night. About five quarterns of 
oats will, on the average, suffice; but no rule can be laid down, 
nor can it be positively asserted that no beans should be given. 
In some cases the appetite is so bad, that without them enough 
corn will not be taken ; and this is especially true with reference 
to those old horses which have been accustomed to beans for many 
years. When the feet and legs, as well as the wind, are all sound, 
beans maybe allowed without fear; but when there is a screw 
loose in any of these departments, they produce inflammation there, 
and should be carefully avoided. Ten pounds of hay may also be 
laid down as the average quantity of this article suited to the 
hunter; but here, also, no absolute rule can be carried out. Some 
horses would "drop in two," as the grooms say, if only allowed ten 
pounds of hay daily; while others would look quite lusty with that 
quantity. A handful of chaff with each feed of corn is all that 



220 THE HORSE. 

should be given of this article, as more ,Jan this is apt to fill the 
horse out in the middle of the day. Towards the end of this pe- 
riod, which may extend to five or six weeks, the horse gradually 
gets into high condition, and at any time, on a day's notice, he 
may be ready for the hunting- field. All that is required is to give 
him no hay on that morning, but to feed him twice on his usual 
allowance of corn, with a few go-downs of water only each time. 
The hunter does not require to be "set" overnight, like the race- 
horse, and he may advantageously be given his usual weight of 
hay at the bedding him up the night before ; but if he has any 
tendency to eat his litter, it is prudent at all times, but more espe- 
cially then, to put a muzzle on him late at night, when he has 
eaten his hay. 

Hacks and Harness-horses demand nearly as much time 
and care to prepare them for their work, especially in relation to 
the amount of corn which is allowed them. They seldom want so 
much as five quarterns daily; but whatever quantity they may re- 
quire, it should not be given them until they are gradually accus- 
tomed to its use. So also with regard to the hammering of their 
feet and legs on the road, it will be found that these demand sea- 
soning as much as their wind and muscles. If this is not attended 
to, the best formed legs and feet will become inflamed, and a valua- 
ble horse may be lamed, when, with proper care, he might be made 
to do his work with ease. Our own bodies, when untrained to bear 
the blows of the fist, show the marks of the glove clearly enough; 
but in the course of time, when the skin has gradually become 
inured to the stimulus, even the terrible right hand of Tom Sayers 
would fail to leave its mark upon the ribs of a well-trained opponent. 
This difference in the result of the application of physical force 
arises partly from the tendency to inflammation being subdued by 
temperate living and abundant exercise, and partly from the nerves 
and vessels of the skin becoming habituated to the blows which 
they receive. So also with the hack and harness-horse ; when first 
they are brought into the stable, their vessels are full of gross hu- 
mors, and their feet and legs have long been accustomed only to 
the soft and elastic turf upon which they have been reared. They 
are, therefore, prone to inflammation in everyway; aud until their 
systems have been hardened by plenty of exercise, and their legs 
and feet have been gradually inured to our hard roads, they should 
be kept from every kind of fast work. 

TEEATMENT AFTEK WOEK. 

After work the horse requires to be treated according to its 
nature and the extent to which it has been carried. Thus the 
hunter may demand remedies for exhaustion, blows on the legs, 
thorns in the legs, overreaches, cuts, &c. ; but the hack and car- 



TREATMENT AFTER WORK. 221 

riage-horse will only need the ordinary grooming, which, has been 
described at page 183; that is to say, provided the feet are not in 
pain from ill-fitting shoes. 

Exhaustion is sometimes so great that before any food can be 
taken a cordial must be given, in the shape either of a warm ball, 
or a quart of warm spiced ale. Generally, however, some gruel 
will suffice, when aided by a warm box and the other comforts 
which are afforded by the groom, including dressing, clothing, 
bandaging, &c. 

Blows on the legs are reduced by hot fomentations, continued 
for half an hour at a time, and repeated at intervals of one, two, 
or three hours, in proportion to the severity of the mischief. Cold 
applications are too apt to relieve the skin and cellular membrane 
beneath it at the expense of the joints, and I have never seen them 
of much service. Nothing, I believe, is so valuable in all blows 
received in the hunting-field as hot fomentation, but it should be 
thoroughly carried out, and not done by halves, as it too often is 
by careless grooms. It no doubt has a tendency to increase the 
swelling for a time, but in doing this the blood is drawn to the 
surface, and internal mischief is often prevented. I have had 
young horses come home with their knees and shins terribly 
bruised over timber and stone walls, but though the fomentation 
with hot water has enlarged the knees to a frightful size, there 
has been no lameness on the next day; and the swelling has gra- 
dually disappeared, leaving the joints as free as ever at the expira- 
tion of forty-eight hours. On the other hand, I have tried cold 
wet bandages for similar injuries, but I have invariably found that 
they gave present relief to a slight extent, but left the limbs stiff 
and rheumatic often for the next two or three weeks. The addi- 
tion of a little tincture of arnica to the water for fomentation is a 
great improvement when it is at hand, and I should always advise 
the hunting groom to keep a stock of it by him during the season. 
A wineglassful is enough for half a bucket of hot water. 

Thorns are most troublesome to the groom, and it is often a 
question of great doubt whether to persevere in the endeavor to 
remove them, or to leave them alone until they manifest themselves 
by the inflammation they produce. When the hunter comes home, 
his legs should be carefully examined while they are wet (that is 
if his exhausted condition does not forbid the loss of time); 
and if the hand clearly detects any projection, search should at 
once be made with a view to the removal of the foreign body. 
Usually, however, the thorn has buried itself, and it is only when 
I it has produced some considerable degree of inflammation that 
attention is drawn to the spot. When lameness is shown in any 
the limbs on coming home from hunting, the groom always is 
inclined to suspect a thorn as the cause of mischief, and I have 
19* 



222 THE HORSE. 

known the penknife used in half-a-dozen different places to cut 
down upon what was supposed to be a buried thorn, which was 
never discovered, for the plain reason that no such matter was 
present in the leg. 

Overreaches must be dried up as quickly as possible, and 
should not be treated like common wounds, for the reason that the 
horny substance of the foot, when it becomes softened and decom- 
posed by the matter flowing from a wound near it, acts like a 
poison upon the ulcerated surface. It is better, therefore, to apply 
a little friar's balsam, or some other astringent, such as sugar of 
lead, rather than to use wet bandages or bran poultices, whi<m I 
have sometimes known to be applied. 

Simple as well as contused cuts are far better treated in 
the horse with hot fomentations than by any attempt to heal them 
at once. Unless they are very extensive or deep, the only point 
in which they are to be regarded is with reference to the blemish 
which they may leave. Sometimes the edges gape so wide, that a 
stitch or two must be inserted, but in such a case it is better to 
intrust the operation to a competent veterinary surgeon. 

SUMMERING. 

Until Mr. Apperly first drew attention to this subject, forty 
years ago, at which period those horses which were not required 
to work through the summer, were invariably turned out to grass ) 
hunters, as a regular rule, were stripped of their clothing in April, 
and sent to grass on or about the first of May, that is, as soon as 
the first young blades showed themselves, this kind of food being 
supposed to be particularly advantageous to them, from its cooling 
powers. 

The sudden change from a warm stable to the cold nights often 
met with in May frequently produced inflammation of the lungs 
or bowels, and this alone was sufficient to cause the plan to be looked 
on with great suspicion as soon as it was shown that it was by no 
means absolutely necessary. But not only was this danger incurred ; 
for even if the hunter remained in good health during the summer, 
yet when he came up in August he was so fat and unwieldy from 
eating the succulent grasses of that season, that he was quite unfit 
to be ridden, and had to go through a series of severe sweats, 
which he was ill able to bear. Considering the slow pace at which 
hunting was carried on in the eighteenth century, a horse recently 
up from grass, if he had been allowed corn while out of doors, as 
was generally done, was able to go through a run, though it might 
be at the expense of the coat tails worn by his rider, which were 
liberally lathered with soapy sweat. But in the present day, when 
the hunter requires to be as fit as a race-horse, he must have the 
same amount of preparation ; and we all know what sort of chance 



SUMMERING. 223 

a horse would have of winning a race in November if he is eating 
nothing but grass in J\ ugust. Indeed, a fast run in Leicestershire 
is even more trying t) condition than an ordinary race, because, 
though the pace is not quite so good, it is more true, and lasts four 
or five times as long. Hence the old plan has been almost uni- 
versally given up, and the hunter is summered in a loose box, 
where he is generally "soiled" on vetches, lucerne, and clover. 
Moreover, it is found by practical experience, that far more good 
may be done in renovating the legs in-doors than out at this season 
of the year. In the winter, cold, starvation, and soft ground all 
combine to restore the legs to a cool and healthy state; and a run 
from October to May will do far more good than the same time 
passed in a loose box. But during the summer the ground is hard, 
the sun shines fully upon the legs, so as to inflame them if they 
have any tendency that way, and the grasses are so succulent that 
the body becomes heavy and the blood full of gross humors, both 
of which last conditions tell with double force upon the legs and 
feet. Again, the flies which are so tormenting to horses in June, 
July, and August, cause them often to gallop about in the most 
frantic manner, and thus not only is another obstacle presented to 
their improvement, but it very often causes these parts to become 
worse than in the season. But some will say that much of this 
risk may be avoided by turning the hunter out into the marshes, 
where the soil is always cool, soft, and moist. This is quite true; 
nevertheless, the gain to the legs is at the expense of the general 
system, which is so completely upset by moist grasses, that instead 
of eight or nine weeks it will require as many months to eradicate 
their ill effects. As far as the hunter is concerned, there can be 
no question in my mind that a loose box is the proper place for 
him during the summer ; and that he should be allowed a yard to 
run into if it can possibly be so arranged admits of little doubt, 
but if this is inconvenient, the Nimrodian plan of confining him 
in the ordinary loose box is to be accepted in its entirety. The 
hack or harness horse does not receive so much injury from a 
summer's run as the hunter, but if he requires rest for his legs, it 
is far better to turn him out in the winter season than during the 
opposite division of the year. Nevertheless, as there are still some 
advocates of the summer's run at grass, I shall give directions foi 
it, as well as for the soiling in the stable, as advised by " Nimrod." 
Soiling is conducted as follows : — At the conclusion of the hunt- 
ing season the horse is gradually cooled down, either by removing 
his clothing in the stable, and letting him first stand there naked 
for two or three weeks, or by putting him with it on into a moder- 
ately warm loose box, and after he has been there a day or two 
taking it away by degrees. At the same time he is deprived of his 
corn, and fed upon hay only ; but this change also must not be too 



221 THE HORSE. 

sudden, demanding a month for its complete carrying out, which 
will bring the time on to the beginning or middle of the month of 
May. A large airy loose box should then be provided, the floor 
being covered with six inches of tan or sand, and the door being 
so arranged that in warm weather it may be left open, a chain being 
drawn across from post to post. Here the horse is left for a few 
days till he is thoroughly accustomed to his new berth, and his 
coat is full of dust and scurf, when he may have a dose of physic, 
and while under its effects his legs may be blistered, or dressed 
with iodine ointment, or some of the many applications which are 
used for the purpose of producing absorption of the morbid de- 
posits which have been thrown out during the winter. 

After the physic is set, green food of some kind may be 
commenced, consisting of Italian rye grass, young vetches, or 
lucerne, or, if these cannot be obtained, of ordinary meadow grass. 
At first an equal quantity of hay must be allowed for old hunters, 
or the change from dry food to green will produce too great an 
effect on the bowels. Young and hearty horses will, however, be 
none the worse for this ; and, indeed, when they are turned out, 
all have to bear the change in its fullest extent. I am not fond 
of vetches for soiling horses, as they either purge them when they 
are young, or heat them too much when their seed-pods are fully 
developed. For working horses the latter condition is especially 
suited, as they have the effect of beans, and when green food is 
wanted merely to renovate the stomach without depending on ita 
soiling properties, I see no objection to them. But for hunters 
when soiled heating food is to be avoided, and on that account I 
cannot see the advantage of vetches to this kind of horse. As 
there is no galloping over hard ground the shoes may be removed 
altogether, and even tips may be dispensed with. The feet should 
be pared out nicely, the blacksmith removing all broken fragments 
of horn, and inspecting them afterwards at least once a month. 
Now is the time to attend to any early symptoms of sand crack, 
seedy toe, &c, prompt measures at this season often leading to a 
prevention of these annoying evils. If the horse is not more than 
ten or twelve years old, his corn may be stopped altogether while 
he is eating green food in June and July, but a favorite old hunter 
should be indulged with a couple of quarterns daily, or he will 
probably lose flesh to a great extent. The young horse is always 
prone to inflammation, which a cooling treatment will remove, but 
the old one is more seasoned, and he will get more harm from being 
lowered in his general system than the benefit to his legs will re- 
pay. By the month of August all these plans will have co- 
operated to produce the desired effect ; the legs are cool and fine, 
and the lumps and bumps incidental to the hunting-field have en- 
tirely disappeared. If they have been very extensive, two or three 



SUMMERING. 225 

doses of physic should have been given, but in general one dose as 
ordered at the beginning of the soiling, and another at the end. 
when the commencement of training takes its turn, will be suffi- 
cient. I have now brought the horse to the middle of the month 
of August, at which time the preparation for work, described at 
page 206, et sequitur, must be commenced in earnest. 

Turning out to grass, or pasturing, demands some little 
attention, which however horses seldom receive. Excepting in 
the height of summer it is a very dangerous practice to turn a pre- 
viously warmly clothed and stabled animal into the fields without 
gradually accustoming him to the change of climate. The aver- 
age temperature of our spring nights is not more than 40° of 
Fahrenheit, and frequently this degree of cold is united with a 
keen wind and sharp rain. Even if a hovel is provided, the horse 
is almost sure to get wet before he betakes. himself to its protec- 
tion, and its door being necessarily open the wind can enter freely. 
It is therefore found that at all other seasons but the summer 
quarter two or three weeks at least must be devoted to the harden- 
ing of the skin to bear the climate out of doors. This is done by 
first of all removing the clothes by degrees", avoiding all attempts 
at dressing, so as to allow the scurf to accumulate and protect the 
skin, and then changing the warm stable for a cooler box, which 
may be closed at first, and day by day left more and more open to 
the weather by admitting the air through its various apertures. 
If the horse is of a delicate constitution, and the weather is cold 
and wet, the turning out should be delayed till there should be a 
change for the better, or if it is decided on at all risks the precau- 
tion should be taken for the first two or three nights to bring him 
under some dry shelter, avoiding, of course, a warm stable, as 
doubly injurious. 

When unsoundness op the feet or legs is the inducement 
to turn out, and the time at which it is desirable to do this is the 
summer season, the choice should fall upon a marsh. Hard ground 
will increase the mischief, and, between July and September, al- 
though it may be soft just at one particular time, it cannot be 
expected to remain so long. In any case some precaution should 
be taken against the horse galloping about on his first being let 
loose, which, from the joy he experiences at getting his liberty, 
he almost invariably does. To prevent this, the legs should be 
blistered a few days before, so as to seize the opportunity when 
they are swollen, stiff, and sore, and when, as a natural conse- 
quence, a gallop would be so extremely painful as to be altogether 
out of the question. A cradle must be kept on to prevent blem- 
ishes, but this is no more objectionable out of doors than in. In 
almost every case this application would be necessary for the dis- 
eased condition of ti e extremities, whether the horse was turned 

P 



226 



THE HOUSE. 



out or not ; but it is better to seize the opportunity wbile the legs 
are still stiff and sore. Fetters or hobbles may be put on the fore- 
legs with the same object, if the feet only are the seat of mis- 
chief; but to inflamed joints or back sinews they are not sc well 
suited, from the pressure they produce on the former, and the 
strains which they cause to the latter. After a few days' liberty, 




THE HUNTER TURHED OCT TO GRAS8. 



the tendency to gallop will be lost, and as the legs gradually re- 
cover their elasticity the horse is not so prone to overdo himself 
in his exercise, and will generally remain content with a moderate 
pace; or, if the legs are very unsound, the blister may be re- 
peated. 

The renovation of the health, when this has been broken 
down by disease or hard work, is best effected on good sound up- 
lands. The herbage on salt marshes will sometimes agree with 
the horse even better than ordinary meadow grass, but this forms 
the exception to the rule, and is not to be relied on in general. 
In selecting a run in such a case care should be taken that the 
herbage is of the desired nature, the best proof of which is that 
it has agreed with horses in previous seasons. Experienced judges 
can generally pronounce upon the probability :f the desired result 






SUMMERING— CARE OF SADDLERY. 227 

after inspecting the situation, but on the whole their opinion, 
however well founded, is not so much to be relied on as the fact 
that horses have actually become fresh while turned out there. 

The fore feet should always be protected by "tips," which 
are merely short shoes reaching only two-thirds of the way to the 
heels, which are then left uncovered. The object is to avoid the 
risk of breaking away the toes, which is incurred whenever the 
foot is battered on hard ground, as it often is when it is stamped 
continually, as horses are very apt to do, on the bare surface which 
is kept dry beneath a sheltering tree. Here the fliep ire very apt 
to collect around the horses, and to get rid of their annoyance the 
legs are constantly in motion. If the full shoe is left on, the hind 
toe is very apt to catch its heel in deep ground, and tear it wholly 
or partially off; and, moreover, it is too often neglected, and either 
the heels press into the sole, producing corns, or they confine the 
frog, and lead to disease of that important organ. Tips may safely 
be left on without removal for two or three months, whereas shoes 
require attending to every three or four weeks. The hind shoes 
are always taken off, partly because the hind feet are not so liable 
to be broken at the toes, but chiefly because they would be dan- 
gerous to other animals if they were left on from the severe dam- 
age which is done by a kick with an armed heel. 

Horses whose jugular veins have become obliterated from 
adhesive inflammation following bleeding, are unfit to be turned 
out in consequence of the difficulty which is presented to the re- 
turn of the blood from the head by its low position in grazing. 
So also those which have recently suffered from staggers should 
not be sent out to grass, for fear of the position causing a return 
of the disease. 

CARE OF SADDLERY AND HARNESS; 

The management of saddlery must have a treble object. 
First, the groom should lake care that he does nothing which shall 
injure the horse. Secondly, he must have a due regard to his 
master's comfort in using it. And, thirdly, he must please the 
eye. I must therefore show how each of these purposes can best 
be effected. 

To avoid injuring the horse the groom should begin when 
he first comes in from work, and before he removes the saddle or 
cellar. It is ascertained by experience that if these are taken off 
when the skin beneath them is hot and sweating, inflammation will 
almost surely follow, while by leaving them loosely in their places 
for a short time no injurious effect is perceived. If a groom who 
is master of his business is watched when his horses come in, he 
will be seen to loosen their girths and lift the saddles from their 
backs for a second, rep! acing them loosely, and leaving them there 



228 THE HORSE. 

while lie takes oJ the bridles and makes his arrangements ibi 
dressing. In harness-horses everything but the collars may be 
taken off, and after turning them to remove the harness and traces, 
they may be replaced and left as near to the shoulder as the posi- 
tion of the horse with his head in the manger will allow. This 
rule should be invariably followed whenever horses come into the 
stable after having done any amount of work. If they have 
merely gone out for a short airing, and the skin beneath the saddle 
or collar is not even damp, there is no occasion for the precaution, 
and the saddle or collar may at once be removed. The next thing 
to be done to the saddlery in reference to the horse's comfort is to 
dry the lining carefully before it is again used. Even the lining 
of harness-pads should be attended to, and in the winter this cannot 
be done without placing each before the fire. After the serge 
lining is dry, it is an excellent plan to beat the stuffing with a 
stick, so as to remove the powdery particles left by the sweat, 
which soon clog up the interstices and form a matted cake with 
the woollen materials used if they are allowed to remain. 

In attending to the comfort op the master the groom 
must take care to keep all the leather which comes in contact with 
the hands or legs perfectly supple, yet so clean that no stain is left 
behind. Nothing is more annoying than to get off the saddle for 
the purpose of paying a morning call, and find the insides of a 
light pair of trousers stained all the way down. This is perfectly 
inexcusable, and its occurrence marks the ignorance and careless- 
ness of a servant in the most unmistakeable manner. The same 
remark applies to the reins, which never ought to soil a pair of 
white gloves. Whenever blacking is applied to harness it is 
impossible altogether to prevent the tendency to leave a stain, but 
if it is carefully put on, and well brushed, as long as it is kept dry 
it may be lightly handled with impunity. If buckles are to be 
altered, the gloves must suffer, and for this reason, when gentlemen 
drive their own horses, they generally prefer brown driving reins, 
which may be treated in the same way as riding reins, and kept 
clean accordingly. The following directions for cleaning saddles 
and riding bridles, and also for brown driving reins, or any other 
parts of the harness made of undyed leather, will serve the pur- 
pose extremely well. As long as the leather remains dry and 
clean it needs no attention, but when it is wetted, either by rain, 
or by the water necessary for cleaning it from road dust, it becomes 
hard and stiff, and must be softened with some kind of oily matter. 
Neat's-foot oil is that usually employed, but for saddles it is rather 
of too greasy a nature, being apt to leave a mark on the trousers 
if it has been liberally applied. The best application is deer's 
suet, whieh should be gently warmed and rubbed in before the 
leather i? quite dry again, after being wetted ; that is to say, while 



CARE OF SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 229 

it remains limp, for if it is held to the fire long enough, all wet 
leather becomes hard and stiff. A very little oil or suet will suf- 
fice, if it is used as soon as the leather is nearly dry, after each 
wetting, but when leather has been left for days in a dry place 
after being thoroughly wet, it becomes so stiff that nothing but a 
good soaking with oil will restore its pliability, and even with this 
it remains stiff to a certain extent, unless it is very slightly damped, 
in conjunction with the use of the oil. Vegetable oils, with the 
single exception of castor oil, are too much inclined to become 
hard to suit leather, and none but the latter should ever be em- 
ployed. Its nauseous smell is an objection to it, but otherwise it 
will answer the purpose almost as well as neat's-foot. Horse-fat, 
if used carefully, and in very small quantities, is a capital applica- 
tion, but one liberal dressing with it spoils the look of leather, 
giving it a sodden appearance, which it never recovers. 

TO MAKE SADDLERY AND HARNESS LOOK WELL to the eye, 

several receipts, and directions for using them, are necessary ; in- 
cluding the following, for avoiding injury from chemical decom- 
position : — 

(1.) Do not allow brass or plated furniture to be within reach 
of the air of the stable ; for the ammonia given off from the urine 
will tarnish them. Gas, also, is prejudicial; and if it is burned 
in the harness-room, it should be contained within a glass chamber, 
which has a ventilating shaft, so as to carry off the products of 
combustion into the external air. Gas stoves are particularly pre- 
judicial ; and, indeed, so are all stoves which allow the fumes 
given off by the coals to pass into the room. 

(2.) As soon as possible after the harness is taken off, if the 
weather is fine, take a leather, kept specially for the purpose, and 
wipe off the dust ; sponging with a damp sponge those parts which 
are soiled with sweat. If the traces, belly-band, &c, are splashed 
with mud, wash them at once ; on no account soaking them in 
water, or using more of it than is necessary. Dry them, as far as 
possible, with the leathers. If the black dye with which the 
leather is stained has come off to any serious extent, a little of a 
solution of green copperas may be used, but this is not often neces- 
sary. Unbuckle the bits from the bridle, put them in clean water 
for a short time, then take them out, and remove every particle of 
dirt from them. Dry with the leather, and rub a very little neat's- 
foot oil on them. Before they are used again, they must be polished 
with the dry leather, aided by a little silver sand, if they have 
become at all rusty. The curb-chain will always want rubbing 
loosely in the hand with a little silver sand, finishing with the 
leather. 

Black harness must be kept constantly polished by hand- 
brushing it with some composition specially prepared for the pur- 



230 THE HORSE. 

pose. This musi be of a greasy or waxy nature, to prevent the 
rain from dissolving it, and washing it off upon the coat of the 
horse. One or other of the following compositions will answer th«i 
purpose : 

BECIPES FOE HABNESS BLACKING. 

No. 1. 

Spirit of Turpentine . . . 1 pt. 

Beeswax . . .4 oz. 

Prussian Blue . . .1 oz. 

Lamp Black . . . |oz. 

Slice the wax very thin, put it in a jar and pour on the turpentine. Let 

it stand twenty-four hours, then grind the other ingredients together on a 

stone or marble slab, and mix carefully up. It must be kept in a covered 

tin box. 

No. 2. 
Take the above composition and add the following, which improves the 
polish : — 

Spirit Varnish . . 1 pt. 

Gum Benzoin . . . 2 oz. 

Soft Soap . ... 1 oz. 

Melt together in a water bath, and when thoroughly incorporated mix all 
together on a stone and cover up directly. 



CHAPTER XII. 

RIDING. 



Mounting and Dismounting — The Seat — Management of the 
Reins — Modes of Starting the Horse into his Various Paces — 
Riding to Hounds — Out-door Vices and Bad Habits. 

MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING. 

The celebrated Rarey 
has recently given us a new 
light upon the subject, which 
is quite at variance with those 
directions which have hitherto 
been considered to be the cor- 
rect ones in this country. Thus, 
Captain Richardson, in his val- 
uable work on Horsemanship, 
advises as follows : — " Stand 
opposite the near fore-foot of 
the horse, place the left hand 
on the neck near to the withers, having the back of the hand to the 




MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING. 231 

horse's head, and the reins lying in front of the hand. Take up 
the reins with the right hand, put the little finger of the left hand 
between them, and draw them through until you feel the mouth 
of the horse ; turn the remainder of the reins along the inside of 
the left hand, let it fall over the fore-finger on the off-side, and 
place the thumb upon the reins. Twist a lock of the mane round 
the thumb or fore-finger, and close the hand firmly upon the reins. 
Take the stirrup in the right hand, and place the left toe in it as 
far as the ball ; let the knee press against the flap of the saddle, 
to prevent the point of the toe from irritating the side of the horse; 
seize the cantle of the saddle with the right hand, and springing 
up from the right toe, throw the right leg clear over the horse, 
coming gently into the saddle by staying the weight of the body 
with the right hand resting on the right side of the pommel of the 
saddle; put the right toe in the stirrup." Now this is in the main 
applicable to a man of five feet ten inches or six feet, but to a 
shorter individual attempting to mount a horse of fifteen hands 
three inches, it is an impossibility, simply because he cannot reach 
the cantle from the same position which enables him to hold the 
stirrup in the left hand. The Captain is also wrong, in my opinion, 
in directing that the body should be raised into the saddle directly 
from the ground, with one movement. This will always bring the 
rider down into the saddle with a very awkward jerk; and the 
proper direction is to raise the body straight up till both feet are 
on a level with the stirrup-iron, and then with the left leg held 
against the flap of the saddle by the left hand on the pommel, the 
right leg is easily thrown over the cantle, and the body may be 
kept in the first position until the horse is quiet, if he is plunging 
or rearing. A short man can generally place his foot in the stir- 
rup while held in his hand, but it should be known that all cannot 
do this, because I have seen young riders much vexed at finding 
that they could not possibly do what is directed. Most of our 
writers on horsemanship are of the military school, and endeavor 
to cut every one's cloth by their own coats. They are able to do 
certain things easily, and so are their men, because they are mostly 
of the height already specified, but as sportsmen and civil eques- 
trians are of all heights, I shall endeavor to accommodate my re- 
marks to all heights and classes. In all cases the rider should 
stand at the shoulder, though with a short man it is much easier 
to mount a tall horse from the hind-quarter, but the danger of 
kicking is very great ; and even in mounting with " a leg," in the 
jockey style, I have known the thigh very nearly broken by a 
kick. If the hand can steady the stirrup it should do so, but if 
the person is too short, the foot can be placed in the stirrup with- 
out its aid; then taking the reins between the fingers, much as 
directed in the passage already quoted, and grasping a lock of the 



232 THE HORSE. 

mane* with the finger and thumb, the body is raised till the right 
foot is brought to a level with the left, when the right hand seizes 
the cantle, and with the left grasping the pommel, the body is 
steadied for a short time, which, in the ordinary mount, is almost 
imperceptible, but in a fidgety horse is sometimes of considerable 
length. The leg is now thrown gently over the saddle, and as it 
reaches the cantle the hand is withdrawn, after which the body 
sinks into the saddle in an easy and graceful manner. The right 
foot is then placed in the stirrup, with or without the aid of the 
right hand holding it. 

Such is the English method. Mr. Rarey, in opposition to 
this plan, advises that the right hand and arm shall be thrown over 
the saddle, the horseman standing with his back to the quarters, 
and thus incurring the chance of being severely kicked. 

THE SEAT. 

The position op the rider in the saddle, called " the seat," 
admits of several variations according to the purpose to which he 
is devoted, but it is mainly influenced by the length of the stir- 
rups. In the military style these are so long that the weight of 
the body Is conveyed to the saddle by the inside of the thighs, or 
"fork" alone, while in that adopted in the East this part scarcely 
touches the saddle, and the breech and feet distribute the weight 
between them. Colonel Greenwood, who is the only military writer 
on horsemanship that can be taken as a guide for the road, tells 
us — " There is one direction which I think applies to all seats. 
Turn the thigh from the hip, so as to bring the hollow to the sad- 
dle ; this places the foot straight to the front, with the heel out 
and the toe in. Trotting without stirrups on the thigh only, with 
the heel down and the toe up, shoulders back, a snaffle rein in 
each hand like a rough-rider, is the best possible position for sit- 
ting." Now the latter part of this is quite true, but the former is 
not quite consistent with my own experience, for if the short 
stirrups of the Eastern horseman are adopted, the hollow of the 
thigh cannot be brought to the saddle, yet this style he admits is 
; ' admirable in its way." Dismissing then the military seat for 
which Colonel Greenwood's directions may suffice, I may assert 
that, in the ordinary English style, there are four points necessary 
to be considered; namely, (1) the position of the weight, which will 
be mainly influenced by (2) the position of the knees well forward 
on the flap, (3) the proper length of the stirrup-leathers, and (4) 
the carriage of the body. If the weight is not laid upon the 
middle of the saddle, which is the axis of the "see-saw" motion 
made in the gallop, it has to be raised at every stride, and thus 
additional labor is thrown on the horse. With long stirrups in the 
military style this is of necessity done; but, with ehort stirrups. 



MANAGEMENT OF THE REINS. 233 

the knees are often placed on the flaps behind the leathers, and 
then the breech remains close to the cantle and sometimes almost 
overlapping it. To get the length of leather adapted to most men, 
though there are occasionally exceptions, the rider should sit well 
on his fork, and then the stirrups should be taken up or let down 
till they just touch the ankle bone. For road riding this enables 
the hollow of the thigh to touch the saddle, because the ball of the 
foot being on the stirrup, the heel is down an inch and a half below 
it; whilst, in the hunting-field, as the stirrup is worn " home," the 
knee is carried higher and more forward on the saddle, and the 
weight is distributed between it, the breech, and the foot. With 
regard to the carriage of the body, all the directions in the world 
will not make it easy, and without the supervision of a master, or 
a friend, to point out defects, no one can be sure that he is sitting 
in a good, much less an elegant style. It is not possible even to 
know that the shoulders are square, or that the body is not carried 
on one side, defects which I have known persisted in for years 
without the slightest consciousness of them on the part of the 
rider, who would gladly have rectified them if he had known of 
their existence. One rule may, however, be given, namely, that 
no effort should be made to move in any direction, and that, on 
the contrary, every endeavor should be directed to keep the body 
and legs as still as the action of the horse will allow, bearing in 
mind that the opposite extreme of stiffness is almost equally bad. 

MANAGEMENT OF THE REINS. 

There are three distinct modes of holding and managing 
the reins. In the first, adopted by the military school, the left 
hand does all, without any assistance from the right, which is occu- 
pied with the sword, lance, or carbine. In the second, the left 
hand holds the reins, aided occasionally by the right; and in the 
third, or " two-handed method," the reins are permanently held 
one in each hand. The first of these is only needed in the manege, 
and I therefore shall not allude to it ; while the last requires no 
description, further than to mention that it is the mode adopted 
by the colt-breaker, and that it gives far more control over the 
mouth than either of the others. As single and double reins 
are differently placed in the hand, a description of each will be 
necessary. 

The single rein is held by placing all the fingers but the first 
between the two leathers, and then, making both turn over that 
one, they are firmly held by pressing the thumb against it. This 
gives a firm grasp, and at the same time allows of either being 
pulled tighter than the other by turning the wrist. To shorten 
the grasp, the right hand has only to lay hold of the loose part of 
the rein, and then the left, sliding forwards towards the neck, can 
20* 



234 THE HJRSE. 

close wherever it may be desired. In order to be sure that the 
elbow is held against the side, the thumb should always point 
towards the horse's ears ; and the nearer the little finger can be 
carried to the pommel of the saddle the better. In using the 
single rein, the management of the mouth, if a good one, is easy 
enough ; nevertheless, there are various directions for the purpose 
adopted in different schools, which are dependent upon altogether 
conflicting principles. Every tyro knows that the horse turns to 
the left by pulling the left rein, and to the right by pulling the 
opposite one; and the problem to be solved is to do this by one 
hand only. Now, this with the single rein is easily effected by 
raising the thumb towards the right shoulder, when the right rein is 
to be pulled, or by drawing the little finger towards the fork for the 
left; in both cases by a turn of the wrist, without lifting the whole 
hand. But over and above this action on the mouth, and in many 
cases independent of it, is a movement which, in trained horses, 
is capable of much greater delicacy, and which depends upon the 
sensibility of the skin of the neck for its due performance. It is 
effected by turning the whole hand to the right or left, without 
any wrist action, so as to press the right rein against the neck, in 
order to cause a turn to the left, and the left rein against the neck 
for the opposite purpose; at the same time rather slackening the 
reins, so as not to bear upon the mouth by so doing. In this way 
a horse may be turned with a much greater degree of nicety and 
smoothness than by acting on the corner of his mouth. But 
highly-broken horses, such as the military troop-horses, are often 
too much used to their bits to answer to this slight and delicate 
manipulation; and therefore it is eschewed by Captain Richardson, 
as well as by Colonel Greenwood, but, strangely enough, for oppo- 
site reasons, and each attempting to substitute a very different 
process for it. I am well aware that some horses can never be 
taught it, but must always have a bearing made on the mouth 
before they will turn ; yet, when it can be inculcated, it makes the 
animal so tractable and agreeable to ride, that it is a highly desira- 
ble accomplishment; and I cannot, therefore, join in condemning 
its use, but should rejoice if it could in all cases be fully developed. 
The double rein is usually held by those who ride for plea- 
sure in this country as follows : — Begin by taking up the snaffle- 
rein, and place the fore and middle fingers between its two por- 
tions; then lay hold of the curb-rein, and either hook it loosely 
on to the little finger, if not immediately wanted, or draw it up to 
the requisite degree of tightness and turn it over the fore finger, 
when it will lie upon the snaffle-rein, and, together with it, will be 
gripped by the thumb. By adopting this plan, the curb-rein is 
always at the command of the right hand ; and it may be shortened 
or let out in a moment, which is of constant occurrence in every 



MANAGEMENT OF THE REINS— STARTING TO TROT. 235 

Jay's ride. The hand is held as with the single rein, with the 
thumb pointing to the horse's ears ; in turning, however, there i8 
much less power of bearing on either side of the bit by raising 
the thumb or lowering the little ringer, because the distance be- 
tween the snaffle-reins is only half what it was, and therefore the 
mode of turning by pressure upon the neck is doubly desirable; 
and hence its general adoption in those cases where double-reined 
bridles are used, as in the field and on the road. Sometimes, to 
obviate this objection, the snaffle-reins are placed as in the single- 
reined bridle, outside the little finger, and then the curb is hooked 
over the ring-finger, between the snaffle-reins, so as to allow of the 
full manipulation of the mouth by the hand, without bearing upon 
the neck. But the objection to this is, that the curb cannot be 
shortened without releasing the snaffle ; and therefore the horse 
must either be ridden on the curb alone while this process is be- 
ing effected, or his head must be loosed altogether ; whereas, in 
the other mode, his mouth is still under the control of the snaffle 
all the time that the curb is being let out or taken in. 

The attainment of " good hands," by which is to be under- 
stood a light and delicate handling of the reins, is, or ought to 
be, the aim of every rider. The most delicate mouth in the world 
is soon spoilt by bearing heavily on it, as is too often done by 
grooms, and, indeed, by the average run of our horsemen. So 
also in hunting, if the horse is not allowed his head in making his 
effort, he will be almost sure to fail in exactly doing what he 
meant, and will hit timber, if he is put at that class of fence, 
or will drop his hind legs into the ditch, if there is one. Bad 
riders use the reins as a means of balancing themselves in the 
saddle, and this is especially done in the hunting-field, where they 
would be utterly unable to maintain their seats without the aid thus 
afforded to the proper grip and balance. Every one in learning to 
ride ought to be taught to go through all the paces, and to jump 
the bar without any reins in his hand ; and when he finds he is 
able to do without them, he will learn to use them only in the way 
for which they are intended. 

MODES OF STARTING THE HORSE INTO HIS VARIOUS 
PACES. 

To MAKE A HORSE start off in a quick walk, when he is not 
inclined to do so, either from being too fresh or too raw, is by no 
means an easy task. I have often ridden one for several days in 
succession, before I could make him settle down to a fair walk, 
and even then the slightest excitement would upset all my apparent 
previous progress. This is especially true of those horses pos- 
sessed of such elastic joints, that they could "jog" at a rate much 
slower than they could walk Here restraint by the bridle is out 



236 THE HORSE. 

of the question, and any excitement by the voice or heel increases 
the jog into a full trot, without passing through any intermediate 
stage. The difficulty consists in the fact that for a perfect walk 
the head must he at liberty, and when this is allowed to a generous 
horse, he is inclined to go off at a rate faster than suffices for the 
pace in question. The only plan, therefore, is to ride such horses 
quietly, till they are leg weary, whatever the number of hours may 
be required, and then it is possible to loose their heads without 
their taking advantage of the liberty to go off "at score." In- 
deed, in the walk, the head should never be much confined, and 
yet the rider should not entirely leave it uncontrolled; the finest 
possible touch is enough, so that on any trip the hand is at once 
informed of it by the drop of the head, when, by a sudden jerk of 
the bridle, not too forcible, it rouses the horse, and prevents his 
falling. It is not that he is kept up by pulling the rein, but that 
he is roused by it and made to exert himself, for many horses seem 
regardless of falls, and would be down twenty times a day if they 
were not stimulated by the heel and bit. Confinement of the head 
in the walk is absolutely injurious, and more frequently causes a 
fall than saves one. A good walker will go on nodding his head 
to each step, more or less as it is a long or a short one; and if this 
nodding is prevented by the heavy hand of the rider, the fore-foot 
is not properly stretched forward, the step is crippled, and very 
often the toe strikes the ground; when, if the head were at liberty, 
it would clear it well. In horses which are apt to stumble in the 
walk, I have generally found that a loose rein, with the curb held 
ready for a check, is the safest plan ; and then the horse soon finds 
that he is punished the moment he stumbles, and in a very short 
time he learns to recover himself almost before he is reminded. 
I do not like the spur or the whip so well, because the use of either 
makes the horse spring forward, and often blunder again in his 
hurry to avoid this kind of punishment. The check of the curb, 
on the other hand, makes him recover himself without extra 
progress, or rather by partially stopping him, and thus he is better 
able to avoid his fall. The body is allowed to yield slightly to the 
motions of the horse, but not to waddle from side to side, as is 
sometimes seen. Some horses do not stir the rider at all, while 
others throw him about and fatigue him greatly; and this may 
generally be foretold when the tail sways much from side to side 
in the walk, which is caused by the over-long stride of the horse, 
a very desirable accomplishment in the race-horse or hunter, but 
not in the hack. 

The jog trot is a pace that there is seldom any difficulty in 
effecting, and on the contrary, as I have just observed, the rider is 
often engaged for hours or days in breaking the young horse of it. 

The regular trot is generally easy to produce, but psmetimea 



SMARTING TO TROT. 237 

when the canter has been much adopted, it is not so readily effected. 
The best plan is as follows : — Take hold of both the reins of the 
snaffle, and bear firmly, but steadily, upon the mouth, lean slightly 
forwards in the saddle, press the legs against the horse's sides, and 
use the peculiar click of the tongue, which serves as an encour- 
agement to the horse on all occasions. If properly trained, he 
will now fall at once into the trot, but if he breaks into a canter 
or gallop, he must be checked and restrained into a walk, or a 
" jog-trot." Where the horse has been much used to canter, and 
can go at that pace as slowly as he walks, there is often great diffi- 
culty in making him trot, for no restraint, short of a total halt, 
will prevent the canter. In such cases, laying hold of an ear will 
often succeed, by making the animal drop his head, which move- 
ment interferes with the canter, and generally leads to a trot. The 
rising in the stirrups is generally practised in civil life, as being 
far less fatiguing to both horse and rider; but in the military 
schools the opposite style is inculcated, because among a troop of 
horse it has a very bad effect if a number of men are bobbing up 
and down, out of all time. If it were possible for all to rise to- 
gether, perhaps the offence against military precision might be 
pardoned ; but as horses will not all step together, so men cannot 
all rise at the same moment, and the consequence is that they are 
doomed to bump upon the sheep-skins in a very tiresome manner, 
fatiguing alike to man and horse. This rising in the saddle of itself, 
encourages horses which have been accustomed to it to trot in 
preference to any other pace, and they understand the faintest in- 
dication of it as a sign that this particular pace is to be commenced, 
and trot accordingly. The civilian's mode of riding the trot is as 
follows : — At the precise moment when the hind and fore legs are 
making their effort to throw the horse forward in progression, the 
body of the rider is thrown forcibly into the air, in some horses to 
so great an extent as to make a young rider feel as if he never 
should come down again. After reaching the utmost height, how- 
ever, the body falls, and reaches the saddle just in time to catch 
the next effort, and so on as long as the trot lasts. In this way, the 
horse absolutely carries no weight at all during half his time, and 
the action and reaction are of such a nature that the trot is accel- 
erated rather than retarded by the weight. No horse can fairly 
trot above twelve miles or thirteen miles an hour without this rising, 
though he may run or pace in the American style, so that it is not 
only to save the rider's bones but also to ease the horse that this 
practice has been introduced, and holds its ground in spite of the 
want of military sanction. It is here as with the seat; utility is 
sacrificed to appearances; and whenever the long and weak seat of 
the barrack-yard is supplanted by the firm seat of the civilian, I 
shall expect to see the rising in the trot abandoned, but certainly 



238 THE HORSE. 

not till then. The military length is not now what it was thirty 
years ago ; and perhaps some time or other soldiers may adopt the 
rise, but I am afraid not until they have produced many thousands 
more sore backs than they need have done if they had never prac- 
tised it. In the trot, the foot should bear strongly on the stirrup, 
with the heel well down, and the ball of the foot pressing on the 
foot-piece of the stirrup, so that the elasticity of the ankle takes off 
the jar, and prevents the double rise, which in some rough horses 
is very apt to be produced. The knees should always be main- 
tained exactly in the same place, without that shifting motion which 
is so common with bad riders, and the legs should be held perpen- 
dicularly from the knee downwards. The chest should be well 
forward, and the waist in, the rise nearly upright, but slightly 
forward, and as easily as can be effected without effort on the part 
of the rider, and rather restraining than adding to the throw of 
the horse. 

Good hands and a quiet seat only, with the aid of a curb bit 
properly adapted to the mouth, are required to develop the canter, 
by restraining the gallop ; but to make a horse start off at once, 
with a lead of either leg as desired, is altogether another matter. 
To do this, the canter with either leg leading must first be com- 
pletely taught, so that there is no difficulty in making the horse 
display that particular pace at any time. Then just at the moment 
before starting, pull the rein, and press the heel on the side oppo- 
site to the leg which it is desired the horse should lead. The rea- 
son of this is obvious enough ; every horse in starting to canter 
(and many even in the canter itself) turns himself slightly across 
his line of progress, in order to enable him to lead with that leg 
which he thereby advances. Thus supposing a horse is going to 
lead off with the off-foreleg, he turns his head to the left and his 
croup to the right, and then easily gets his off-leg before and his 
near-leg behind into the line which is being taken. Now, to com- 
pel him to repeat this action, it is only necessary to turn him in 
the same way, by pulling his head to the left, and by touching 
him with the left heel, after which he is made to canter by excit- 
ing him with the voice or whip, whilst at the same moment he is 
restrained by the curb. When once this lead is commenced, the 
hold on the curb and pressure on the legs may be quite equal ; but 
if, while the canter is maintained, it is desired to change the lead- 
ing leg, the horse must be collected and roused by the bit and voice, 
and then reversing the pull of the reins and the leg-pressure, from 
that previously practised, so as to turn the horse in the opposite 
way to that in which he was started, he will generally be compelled 
to change his lead, which is called " changing his leg." The seat 
in this space is a very easy one, the knees taking a very gentle hold 
of the saddle, the feet not bearing strongly upon the stirrups, and 



THE GALLOP. 239 

the body tolerably upright in the saddle. TLe hands must not be 
too low, but should keep a very gentle but constant pressure upon 
the bit, and should, if there is the slightest tendency to drop the 
canter, rouse the mouth by a very slight reminder, and also stimu- 
late the spirits by the voice or whip. 

The gallop being generally, though not always, his fastest 
pace, the horse may be forced into it readily enough by the stimu- 
lus of the voice, whip, or spurs. Sometimes very fast trotters can- 
not gallop so fast as they can trot, but these are rare exceptions, 
and need not be considered in any other light. It is therefore 
useless to describe the mode of starting this pace ; but some allu- 
sion may advantageously be made to the best method of riding it. 
There are two seats adopted, the ordinary one being to sit down 
into the saddle and keep as close to it as possible, but another 
being also practised called standing in the stirrups. The former is 
the usual seat, and it is only in racing or in the very fast gallop 
at other times that the latter is adopted. In sitting down the feet 
may be either resting on the ball of the toe, as in the other paces, 
or with the stirrup " home" to the boot, as is common in all field- 
riding. The body is thrown easily and slightly back, the knees 
take firm hold, the rider being careful not to grip the horse so tight 
as to distress him, which fault I have known very muscular men 
often commit. The hands should be low, with sufficient pull at the 
mouth to restrain, but not to annoy him and make him "fight;" 
and if he is inclined to get his head down too much, or the re- 
verse, they must be raised or lowered accordingly. When the 
standing in the stirrups is to be practised, the weight is thrown 
upon them, steadying it with the knees and thighs, which should 
keep firm hold of the saddle. The seat of the body is carried well 
back, while at the same time the loin is slightly arched; but by 
this combined action the weight is not hanging over the shoulder 
of the horse, as it would be, and often is, when the breech is raised 
from the saddle and brought almost over the pommel, with the 
eyes of the rider looking down his horse's forehead, or very nearly 
so. If a jockey of more than seven or eight stone, with a good 
seat, is watched, it will be seen that his leg does not descend 
straight from the knee, but that it is slightly thrown back from 
that line, and consequently that his centre of gravity is behind it, 
so that he can, by stiffening the joint, carry his body as far behind it 
as his stirrup is, without ceasing to stand in it. Very light jockeys 
adopt a somewhat different seat, riding with longer stirrups and 
throwing their weight greatly on the muscles of the thigh, while 
they raise the breech entirely from the saddle, but only for a com- 
paratively small distance. This gives them a strong hold of their 
horses, without which, being so small, they could not ride them. 
Standing in the stirrups cannot long be maintained without fatigue 



240 THE HORSE. 

to the rider, and it is only adopted in racing or in short gallops 
over bad ground, as in hunting, when there is a deep piece of fal- 
low, or a steep hill, or any other kind of ground calculated to tire 
the horse. 

RIDING TO HOUNDS. 

The kind of seat generally adopted in riding to hounds has 
been already described, and I need not therefore allude to it again. 
I may, however, remind the tyro that the less he depends upon 
balance, and the stronger hold he can get of the saddle with his 
knees and calves, the more likely he will be to avoid a fall without 
his horse coming down also. If this accident happens, a loose seat 
sometimes befriends the rider by causing him to be thrown out of 
the way of the horse, but in the long run the man who has a strong 
grip of his saddle will fare the best. Good hands and judgment 
are equally necessary, and the combination of these three qualities 
makes up the finished performer across country, always supposing 
the presence of nerve in addition. 

There are certain rules adopted in all hunting countries, 
which must be stringently carried out in order to insure the safety 
of the hounds and horsemen, and avoid those disputes which would 
otherwise constantly occur between riders jealous of each other's 
prowess. These may be summed up in the following plain direc- 
tions : — 

When near the hounds keep to the right or left of them, and 
not directly behind, where you are always in danger of riding over 
some of the tail hounds. So also when the pack are crossing a 
thick fence, when there is often only one gap weak enough to allow 
of their getting over, avoid its proximity, and take a place at least 
a dozen yards off. 

Independently of hounds, every rider should take a line of 
his own, or if he is unable to do this and must follow a leader, let 
him keep such a distance behind that if a fall takes place he can 
avoid jumping upon him. In a large field of horsemen, every one 
cannot possibly take a different line, nor is it easy to keep always 
at a safe distance ; but at big places there is generally some hesita- 
tion, and a proper interval can be maintained. No one should 
attempt to pass his neighbor either on the right or left of the line 
he has chosen, when near a fence; but of course this is not to de- 
prive him of his chance of taking the lead in the middle of a large 
enclosure, when a little racing can do no harm. By the adoption 
of this rule, jostling and crowding at a weak place are avoided, 
which without it would be sure to lead to serious accidents. 

Use your judgment in saving your horse in deep ground, 
making up for the apparent loss by putting him along whenever a 
sound headland or good turf can be obtained. It is not going 
straight over sound land that distresses a horse, but the making 



RIDING TO HOUNDS. 24, 

use of him over deep ground, and at the wrong time Many men 
seem to know no difference between sound turf and ;x)tten or wet 
arable, and will kick their horses along over high ridge-and-furrow 
in a wet clay district, at a pace which no horse can bear for more 
than a mile or two in such a country. A workman would look 
out for headlands or footpaths, &c. ; and would, by a slight detour, 
gain upon those who disdained to leave the line even for a few 
yards. Wet and sticky ridge-and-furrow tires a horse dreadfully, 
and the consequence is, that if he is pushed over it he speedily 
loses his powers and wind, and falls in a very ugly way at the first 
fence he comes to of a size above the average. Hence, every man 
who aspires to go well to hounds must learn to be a "judge of 
pace," and should endeavor to make out the signs of distress, and 
the best way of avoiding it. So much depends upon condition 
and breeding, that it is very difficult for a man with a strange horse 
to know what liberties he may take with him. Some well-bred 
ones will be blown, yet if nursed they will come again and again, 
while the dunghill-animal will give up when once he has lost his 
wind, and is gone for that day at least. In ascending steep banks, 
a careful and active horseman will dismount and lead his horse up, 
and by so doing often gains a mile or two upon his less humane 
and cautious antagonist. In ascending hills it is often expedient 
to make a zigzag; but in descending you can never go too straight, 
as the opposite course often leads to a dangerous slip on the side, 
with a crushed knee or ankle as a consequence. Few horses fall 
forwards, and they always manage to save themselves by slipping 
down on their haunches. This is a point of great importance, and 
should always be strictly attended to. 

There are two general directions, which will serve for 
almost all descriptions of fence. These are, that if a height is to 
be overcome, the horse should be taken slowly up to it, in a col- 
lected manner, with his haunches well under him. On tho other 
hand, width requires impetus, and the pace should be forced 
during the last few strides up to a very high rate. Under the 
former head may be classed timber (in all the varieties of gates, 
single posts and rails, stiles, and palings), walls, strong pleached 
fences, and banks. To the latter belong water in all shapes, 
double posts-and-rails, bullfinches, and those fences with a ditch 
on both sides, as well as those which have a wide one on the land 
ing side. In addition to these there are the actual standing leap, 
seldom practised in the present day, the creeping style, the " on 
and off" leap, and the " drop," which is a variety of the standing 
leap. 

In collecting the horse, and properly putting him at his 
fence, there is a great art, and nothing but practice will give it in 
perfection. Double-posts-and-rails require a great deal of collect- 
21 Q 



242 THE HORSE. 

ing and rousitg, and the horse must go pretty fast at them, as also 
must he at all wide jumps, including water in all its forms. One 
essential is, that the horse shall have confidence in his rider ; for 
if he thinks he may turn to the right or left he will most probably 
do so, unless he is very fond of jumping. Nervous men commu- 
nicate their feelings to their horses, and though it may be difficult 
to explain how it is done, there is no doubt of the fact. It is re- 
markable how soon horses find out what kind of man they carry, 
and how they alter under different hands. This is partly owing 
to a mismanagement of the mouth, but in great measure also to 
the trepidation of the rider. Unless, therefore, he has full confi- 
dence in his own courage, he need never expect his horse to go 
steadily and straight at his fences. The collecting is much easier 
than the management of the bit at the leap itself, for there are two 
opposite things to be done, and the delicate point is to hit the mo- 
ment of change from one to the other to a nicety. The first is to 
" catch hold of the horse's head," as it is called — that is, to bear 
more or less upon the mouth, pull the horse on his haunches and 
rouse him, either by voice, heel, or whip. This lasts till the mo- 
ment of the effort made to rise over the obstacle, when the head 
should be released, so that the horse may have all his bodily powers 
at his command. If the head is confined the haunches do not act 
fully, because in making the spring the head is protruded, and pain 
is given by the bit if it is still held fast ; and hence, to avoid the 
pain, the extension does not take place, the leap is not made with 
sufficient spring or power, and the horse alights too near the ditch, 
if there is one, or possibly in it. But in releasing the head judg- 
ment is required, for if the rein is too loose the horse is apt to 
alight in such a position that he is " all abroad," and without great 
help he will often fall ; hence, most good performers, though they 
do not absolutely confine the head, yet they keep a very gentle and 
delicate hold of the mouth, and not only thus prevent the horse 
over-extending himself, but are also prepared to assist him if he is 
inclined to fall. This is the finished style of riding, and is only in 
the power of a man with a good seat as well as good hands. Both 
are wanted, because without the former it is impossib.e to avoid 
"riding the bridle" — that is, holding on by it as well as by the 
saddle ; and without good hands that delicate management of the 
bridle which I have attempted to describe is impracticable. What 
is called "lifting" the horse is sometimes attempted with the bit, 
but I do not recognise ite utility. When a horse is likely to touch 
the top bar of a gate, or in any way to use too small an effort, a 
stroke of the whip down the shoulder is the best lift. Bousing 
and collecting are quite distinct from lifting, which I believe to be 
a myth altogether. In creeping, good hands and quietness in the 
saddle are the chief elements of success, and without them both, 



OUT-DOOR VICES— SHYING. 243 

no one is likely to do much in this particular style ; hence it is 
that so few men can " creep" well, even though they have horses 
accustomed to it under other hands. When the horse has teen 
thoroughly taught to creep, his head may almost be left without 
control, merely guiding him quietly to the gap, and then letting 
him take his own way; but where the horse has to be made to 
creep, a rein should be taken in each hand, and the head guided 
as if with a silken thread, to the right or left, or wherever the ani- 
mal is required to go. These remarks will perhaps be useful to all 
who have no experienced friend ready to afford a practical demon- 
stration of the same fundamental points. One actual lesson in the 
field is worth all the reading in the world; but, in default of this, 
the preceding observations will serve to assist the young aspirant 
for honors in riding to hounds. 

OUT-DOOR VICES AND BAD HABITS. 

Out-door vices depend upon the temper of the individual, and 
include shying, rearing, kicking, lying down, plunging or buck- 
ing, shouldering, and running away. Bad habits arise from a de- 
fective formation of the body, and are confined to stumbling and 
cutting. 

Shying generally arises from timidity, but sometimes it is united 
with cunning, which induces the animal to assume a fear of some 
object for the sole purpose of finding an excuse for turning round. 
The usual cause of shying is doubtless the presence of some object 
to which the colt has not been accustomed, and if he has buck 
eyes, which render him short-sighted, it will be difficult to con- 
vince him of the innocent nature of the novel object. There are 
endless peculiarities in shying horses, some being dreadfully 
alarmed by one kind of object, which to others is not at all for- 
midable. When a horse finds that he gains his object by turning 
round, he will often repeat the turning without cause, pretending 
to be alarmed, and looking out for excuses for it. This is not at 
all uncommon, and with timid riders leads to a discontinuance of 
the ride, by which the horse gains his end for the time, and re- 
peats the trick on the first occasion. In genuine shying from fear 
the eyes are generally more or less defective; but sometimes this 
is not the cause, which is founded upon a general irritability of 
the nervous system. Thus, there are many horses which never 
shy at meeting tilted wagons, or other similarly alarming objects, 
but which almost drop with fear on a small bird flying out of a 
hedge, or any other startling sound. These last are also worse, 
because they give no notice to the rider, whereas the ordinary 
shyer almost always shows by his ears that he is prepared to turn 
round. 

The rest plan of treatment which can be adopted, is to 



244 THE HORSE. 

take as little notice as possible of the shying, and t be especially 
careful not to show any fear of its recurrence when a tfagon appears 
in the distance. When the horse begins to show alarm, but not 
till then, the rider should speak encouragingly to him, and, if 
necessary, with a severe tone, which may even be supported by the 
use of the whip or spurs, if his onward progress cannot be other- 
wise maintained. The principle which sb uld be carried out is to 
adopt such measures as will get the horse to pass the object at 
which he shies somehow or other, and this should be effected with 
as little violence as possible, always commending in an encouraging 
tone as soon as the purpose is gained. Nothing has so great a 
tendency to keep up the habit as the plan so common among igno- 
rant grooms, of chastising the shyer after he has passed the object 
of his alarm. If he can be persuaded to go quietly up to it and 
examine it with his muzzle as well as with his eyes, great good will 
be effected; but this can seldom be done with moving wagons, and 
heaps or stones are generally only alarming from defect of vision, 
so that each time they assume a new phase to the active imagina- 
tion of the timid animal. 

Rearing is seldom met with excepting among raw colts, or if it 
is continued to a later period it is generally incurable. When exist- 
ing in an aggravated form it is a most dangerous vice, as a fall 
backwards over the rider has often led to fatal consequences. 

The usual remedy for it in the colt is the ordinary running 
martingale, which will keep down the rearer who is merely in- 
dulging in his playful fancies. When, however, the vice has be- 
come confirmed, nothing short of severe punishment will be of any 
service, and the horsebreaker generally resorts to the plan of knock- 
ing the horse down as he rises by a blow between the ears with a 
loaded crop. This stuns the horse for a time, and alarms him so 
much that he is often cured by one act of the kind; but it is at- 
tended with some danger of injuring the horse, and the rider does 
not always escape. Another plan adopted by active breakers is to 
wait till the horse is just on the balance, and then slipping off to 
the left, it is easy to pull him over backwards; but this also is often 
followed by severe injury to the horse when the ground is hard. 
I have almost invariably found that bad rearers have very supple 
necks, which increases the difficulty of keeping them down by any 
kind of martingale, and probably this will account for the habit 
having become inveterate. A stiff-necked horse can scarcely rise 
high if his head is confined even by the running martingale ; but 
when the side-straps are tightly buckled to the bit, he is effectually 
restrained, whereas with a loose neck the head can be so bent in 
to the brisket that no obstacle is offered. In such cases I have 
known a cavesson with the noseband lined with sharp prickers, 
and the martingale buckled to it; a m^'t effectual prevention, as 



OUT-DC OR VICES. 245 

the slightest pull opens it, presses the prickers into the aose and 
gives acute pain. Whenever the rider finds a horse inclined to 
rise, he should at once lean forward, and after ineffectually trying 
the martingale to keep the horse down, he must loose his head, 
or he will be almost sure to bring him backwards and cause a 
severe fall. 

For kickers, except when the habit is merely a mode of letting 
off superfluous spirits, severity is the only remedy, and a strong 
application of the whip down the shoulder the best means of using 
it. At the same time the snaffle-reins ought to be firmly held, and 
by their means the head kept up, for there is always a tendency 
to lower this part in the act of kicking; the gag snaffle is very 
effectual for this purpose. 

Lying down is rare in the present day, being chiefly confined 
to under-bred horses and Welsh ponies, which are gradually going 
out of use. The spur is the only means likely to keep a stubborn 
brute up; but in some cases its application is followed by the ani- 
mal throwing himself down suddenly, instead of gradually. 

Plunging may be described as a series of bounds into the air, 
which when they are made up and down in the same place, or 
nearly so, are called " bucking," from their resemblance to the 
playful antics of the deer. A bucking horse is very difficult to sit, 
but by sawing the mouth with a twisted snaffle it may generally 
be stopped at once. 

By shouldering is understood the attempt to crush the leg of 
the rider against a wall, which some ill-tempered horses are fond 
of doing. It is easily avoided by pulling the horse's head round 
to the wall, instead of from it. 

Running away is too well known to need description. In 
some horses it is a species of temporary madness, and scarcely any 
bit, however severe, will stop them. When there is room and 
scope enough, the remedy is simple, but, unfortunately, runaway 
horses generally choose a crowded thoroughfare to indulge their 
fancies in. A gallop to a stand-still, with the free use of the spur 
or whip at the latter part of it, will sometimes prevent a recurrence 
of this vicious act ; but where the tendency is very strong it will 
have little effect. Punishing bits only make some high-couraged 
horses worse, but the majority of runaways would be dangerous 
with a plain snaffle only, and yet there are some which will go 
quietly enough in it, while the adoption of a curb will rouse their 
tempers at once. Of course they can only be ridden with great 
care and judgment, and must never be roused unnecessarily. For- 
tunately the mouths of horses are now made so much more care- 
fully than in former times, and their management is so much better 
understood, that we seldom hear of or see an accident from this 
cause, either in the saddle or in harness. The most e-sential part 
21* 



246 THE HOUSE. 

of the treatment of a runaway is the proper selection of a bit, whicl 
should be sufficient to control him without exciting opposition from 
the pain it gives. 

Stumbling arises from a variety of causes, and the nature of 
any particular case should be thoroughly investigated before any 
remedy for it is attempted. Sometimes it is merely dependent 
upon low or " daisy cutting" action, and then it is possible that it 
may not be attended with danger. I have known many horses 
which would stumble at least every half-mile, but yet they would 
travel for years with sound knees, the other leg being always ready 
to catch the weight. In other cases a stumble would only occur 
at rare intervals, but if the trip was made it was rarely recovered, 
and a fall was almost sure to follow. Again, it happens with some 
horses that when they are fresh out of the stable, their action is 
high and safe, but after a few miles the extensors of the leg tire, 
and they are constantly making a mistake. Inexperienced judges 
are very apt to examine the action of the fore legs alone, while that 
of the hind quarter is of quite as much importance to safety, and 
is more so as regards the ease of the rider. Lameness is a frequent 
source of a fall, from the tendency to put the foot too soon to the 
ground in order to take the weight off the other. And lastly, 
upright pasterns will produce stumbling, when the shoulders are 
so formed that the foot is put down too near the centre of gravity. 

The best plans for remedying these several conditions are 
as follows. If the cause is weakness of the extensors no care can 
be of much service, all that can be done being to be on the look 
out for a trip, and then to take the weight off the fore quarter as 
much as possible by sitting well back, at the same time using such 
an amount of sudden pressure on the bit as to cause the horse to 
exert himself, without any attempt to keep up the head by me- 
chanical force, which is an impossibility. When laziness is the 
cause, the stimulus of the spur or whip will suffice, and it often 
happens that a horse is safe enough at his top pace while a slower 
one is full of danger. In lameness of course the remedy is to wait 
till the foot or feet are sound again. 

Cutting depends either upon the legs being set on too near 
together, or on their joints not acting in a proper hinge-like manner. 
Many horses cut when in low condition, but are quite free from 
the defect when in flesh, and in such cases it is only necessary to 
let them wear a boot until they have had time enough to become 
fresh. Wherever horses " go close" care should be taken that the 
shoes do not project beyond the hoof, and the clenches of the nails 
should be carefully watched, the groom seeing that they are filed 
down by the smith if they stand up at all above the level of the 
horn. Cutting may take place either on the prominent part of the 
fetlock-joint, or midway between it and the knee, or just below 



OUT-DOOR VICES. 



247 



the latter, which is called " speedy cutting," and is very apt to 
cause a fall. A boot should be fitted to the leg in either case, and 
worn till the part is thoroughly healed and all swelling has disap- 
peared, when if any likely method of treatment has been adopted 
the horse may be tried without it, but no journey should be under- 
taken without one in the pocket in case it may be needed. A pe- 
culiar method of shoeing, called a feather-edged shoe, will often 
prevent this bad habit as long as it is adopted. 




THE 

ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 



CHAPTER XIII. 

CLASSIFICATION OF THE VARIOUS ORGANS, AND PHYSIOLOGY 
OF THE SKELETON. 

Classification of the various Organs — Structure of Bone — Of the 
Skeleton in General — The Artificial Skeleton — Number of Bones 
composing the Skeleton — General Anatomy of the Spinal Column 
— Ofhhe Head and Face — Of the Hyoid Arch — OJ the Thoracic 
Arch and Anterior Extremities — Of the Pelvic Arch and Hind 
Extremities — Of the Tail — Of the Fore and Hind Extremities 
considered as Organs of Support and Locomotion. 

CLASSIFICATION OF THE VARIOUS ORGANS. 

The body of the Horse, like all the vertebrate animals, may 
be considered as made up of several distinct apparatuses or systems. 
Of these, the first is a machine composed of the bony skeleton, 
or framework, the various parts of which are united by joints, 
and moved by muscles. Secondly, there are contained within 
the thorax the organs which supply the whole body with the means 
of nutrition in the form of blood, and purify this fluid. Thirdly, 
in the abdomen are presented to view the important organs which 
assimilate the food to the condition of the blood ; while in the ad- 
joining cavity, the pelvis, are the urinary and generative appara- 
tuses. Fourthly, the nervous system may be considered, as com- 
prising the grand centre of the mental faculties, and, also, as pre- 
siding over and controlling the whole of the functions performed 
by the several organs ; and fifthly, certain special organs, as, for 
example, those of sense, and, likewise, the foot will complete the 
circle. 

OF THE STRUCTURE OF BONE. 

The bones are composed of a tissue peculiar to them, enveloped 
by a membrane, the periosteum. They contain a semi-fluid of a 

(248) 



STRUCTURE OF BONE. 249 

fatty nature, the marrow, and are pierced in various directions by 
blood-vessels and nerves. 

The proper tissue of the bones is made up of two distinct 
substances, either of which may be removed by artificial means, 
leaving the other entire. If, for instance, a bone is submitted to 
the heat of a furnace, it retains its shape and rigidity, but becomes 
much whiter in color, and is rendered extremely ! rittle. In fact, 
the mineral salts entering into its composition are ieft, but the ani- 
mal matter binding them together is completely decomposed and 
carried off in a gaseous form. On the other hand, by immersing 
a bone for two or three weeks in diluted hydrochloric acid, the 
earthy salts are dissolved, while the animal matter is untouched. 
Here the bone retains its original shape, but it is soft and flexible; 
and instead of presenting its usual opaque yellowish-white color, 
it is semi-transparent, and resembles the ordinary gelatine of the 
shops. According to Berzilius, bone is chemically composed of 
the following constituents — namely, cartilage, reducible to gelatine 
by boiling ; blood-vessels ; phosphate of lime ; carbonate of lime ; 
fluate of lime ; phosphate of magnesia ; soda and chloride of 
sodium. 

Considered mechanically, the bones form the framework of the 
animal machine. In the limbs they are hollow cylinders, admirably 
fitted by their shape and texture to resist violence and support 
weight. In the trunk and head they are flattened and arched, to 
protect the contents of the cavities they form, and to provide an 
extensive surface for the attachment of muscles. In certain situa- 
tions their exterior is raised into projections called processes, which 
serve as levers for the muscles to act upon ; in others they are 
grooved into smooth surfaces for the easy gliding of tendons, when 
these are stretched between the fleshy part of a muscle and one of 
its attachments. Lastly, they sometimes present a large hollow for 
the lodgment of the belly of a muscle, as in the case of the scapula. 

When microscopically examined, bone is seen to be made up of 
a dense and homogeneous substance (basis substance), in which 
are numberless minute cells (corpuscles of Purkinje). The basis 
substance is partially fibrous and slightly lamellated, the layers 
being concentric in long bones and parallel in flat; it is traversed 
in all directions (more especially in the long axis, where there is 
one) by canals (Haversian canals), which frequently branch and 
inosculate, giving passage to vessels and nerves. In certain situa- 
tions the lamellae separate, and leave between them spaces of va- 
rious sizes, called cancelli. Besides entering into the composition 
of the basis substance, the lanielhe are collected concentrically 
round the Haversian canals, the boundaries of which they form, 
generally to the extent of ten to fifteen layers. Both the compact 
and spongy tissues are, therefore, composed of che same elementary 



250 THE HORSE. 

structure, the former being especially intended to afford resistance 
to yiolence with as little weight as is consistent with its office, for 
which reason it is hollowed into a tube; while the latter is enlarged 
as much as possible without unnecessarily adding to its weight, 
the problem being solved by its development in a cellular form. 

The Periosteum is a dense fibrous membrane which covers every 
part of the surface of the bones, excepting their extremities when 
they enter into the composition of a joint, its place being then 
occupied by cartilage. When this membrane covers the bones of 
the skull it is called pericranium, and when it invests the cartilages 
of the ribs it receives the name perichondrium. It is full of blood- 
vessels, especially in the young, and they freely communicate with 
those of the surrounding soft parts. Hence it is extremely liable 
to inflammation, either caused by injury to itself or to the parts 
which cover it. 

The marrow, or medullary substance, is contained in the cavities 
formed within the bones, being of a yellow color and oily nature 
in the shafts of the long bones; and more or less red, from the ad- 
mixture with blood, in the flat and irregular bones, and in the 
heads of the long bones. It is contained within the areolar meshes 
of a membrane, which lines these cavities, answering to the perios- 
teum, which has been already described. This medullary mem- 
brane is of excessive tenuity, and is composed of blood-vessels rami- 
fying in fine cellular tissues. The use of marrow in the animal 
economy is not very clearly demonstrated. 

In the embryo, all the bones originally exist in the state of car- 
tilage, being soft and flexible. By degrees vascular canals are 
developed within its substance, by the union of its cells in rows. 
These concentrate towards some one or more points, which in a 
long bone are one in the centre of the shaft and one at each ex- 
tremity. Starting from this point (punctum ossificationis) , fibres 
run out, embracing clusters of cells, and sending branches between 
the individuals composing each group. In this manner the net- 
work, characteristic of bone, is formed, the cells uniting to form 
the permanent areolae and Haversian canals. At first the contents 
of the cells are transparent, then granular, and finally opaque, from 
the pressure of amorphous mineral matter. The several ossified 
portions are quite distinct for a long time in the young animal, and 
may readily be separated by boiling or maceration. 

OF THE SKELETON IN GENERAL. 

The name skeleton has been given from the Greek word 
(TxiMat (to dry), it being the only part of the body which will bear 
desiccation without change of form. In the vertebrata it is an in- 
ternal bony framework, but in the Crustacea it invests the soft 
parts, and forms an insensible covering to them, while at the same 



THE SKELETON. 251 

time it serves the purpose of locomotion. In both these divisions 
of the animal kingdom the skeleton forms a series of arches or 
rings, capable of moving on each other, but so firmly attached as 
to secure protection to the important organs contained within them. 
In the horse, as in all the higher mammalia, these rings or arches 
are double — one set, the superior, being continuous throughout the 
whole length of the animal from the head to the root of the tail, 
and containing the nervous system ; while the other lying below, 
but closely connected to them, is interrupted in certain localities, 
being found to exist chiefly in three regions : — 1st, where it forms 
the jaws and bone of the tongue; 2d, where, by means of the ribs 
and sternum, it constitutes the thorax and its appendages, the an- 
terior extremities; and, thirdly, where, in the shape of the pelvic 
arch, it protects the organs of generation, and, through the poste- 
rior extremities prolonged from it, assists in locomotion. The 
superior of these arches, from containing the brain, and its pro- 
longation, the spinal cord, is called the neural arch. The inferior 
is termed the haemal arch (a T t/j.a, blood), because it protects the 
heart and its large blood-vessels as the latter pass from the thorax 
towards the head and posterior extremities. In all the vertebrata 
the neural arch consists of one continuous cavity, defended from 
end to end by bony plates, strongly joined together; and in some 
of the lower forms (lizards) the haemal arch is nearly as complete, 
these animals having cervical ribs ; while the dugong and some 
others are furnished with ribs in their tails. Consequently, it is 
fair to consider the whole skeleton in the superior forms of the 
animal kingdom as composed of two series of arched plates, firmly 
united together, but still allowing more or less motion, and serving 
to protect the centres of the nervous and sanguineous systems, 
from which they have received their names. 

THE ARTIFICIAL SKELETON. 

The bones of the Horse, as of the other mammalia, may be 
preserved with their natural ligamentous attachments connecting 
them in a dry state, in which condition the skeleton is called a 
natural one. It is usual, however, to macerate them so long that 
all the soft parts readily separate, leaving the bones without any 
of the ligaments or cartilages which are firmly fixed to them during 
life. They are then put together by wires, &c, the cartilages being 
represented by leather and cork. In this way it often happens 
that the proportions are not exactly preserved, and, on reference 
to an articulated skeleton in any museum, the inexperienced eye 
may be greatly misled. Thus it is very common to represent the 
thorax in the artificial skeleton as much shallower than it is in 
nature, where its lower margin is on the average about midway 
between the top of the withers and the ground. Again, in the 



252 THE HORSE. 

fresh state, the intervertebral fibro-cartilage is in some parts of the 
spine of considerable thickness; and if tbe proper substance is not 
artificially supplied, tbe skeleton will be too short, or if too thick 
a material is added it will be too long. In tbe engraving of the 
skeleton occupying the opposite page, wbich is drawn from the 
skeleton in the Museum of the Veterinary College of London, the 
spine is correctly represented, but the thorax is too shallow, and 
the scapula, together with the whole fore extremity, is placed too 
far forward. 

NUMBER OF BONES COMPOSING THE SKELETON. 

The skeleton is composed of two hundred and forty-seven 
separate bones, which are united by joints to form tbe spine, tho- 
rax, pelvis, tail, and fore and hind extremities. The spine is 
finished anteriorly by the head, which is divided into the cranium 
and face, and contains the teeth. Suspended from the head is the 
os hyoides, which completes the number of bones. Thus : — 
The spine consists of 7 cervical, 18 dorsal, and 6 lumbar ver- 
tebrae — Total 31 

The thorax is made up of the dorsal vertebras, with 18 ribs 

on each side, and the sternum in the middle — Total . . 37 
The pelvis comprises 2 ossa innominata (or ilium, ischium, 

and pubes), and 1 sacrum — Total 3 

The tail contains on the average 17 bones 17 

The pore extremity is made up on each side of the scapula, 
humerus, os brachii, and 8 carpal bones, 3 metacarpal, os 
suffraginis, os coronas, os pedis, os naviculare, 2 ossa sesa- 

moidea — Total on both sides 40 

The hind extremity has the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, 6 
tarsal bones, 3 metatarsals, os suffraginis, os coronae, os 
pedis, os naviculare, 2 ossa sesamoidea — Total .... 38 

Bones op the cranium 10 

Bones op the face and lower jaw 18 • 

Teeth 40 

Bones op the internal ear, 4 in each organ 8 

Os Hyoides, or bone op the tongue, made up of five sec- 
tions 5 

Grand total 247 

GENERAL ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL COLUMN. 

The vertebral or spinal column is the first rudiment of 
internal skeleton seen in the lower vertebrate animals, and this 
constitutes the type of that great division of the animal kingdom. 
In tbe horse, also, it is the portion of the skeleton first developed 
in the embryo, and forms the centre around which all the other 



SPINAL COLUMN— HEAD AND FACE. 253 

parts arc framed. At its first appearance it is a cartilaginous 
cylinder, surrounding and protecting trie primitive trace of the 
nervous system ; but as the embryo increases in growth, points of 
ossification are developed corresponding to each vertebra, the whole 
tube being finally divided into distinct pieces called vertebrse, to 
which the bones of the head are a prolongation, corresponding in 
their nature, though differing outwardly in form. 

The vertebrse, are divisible into true and false, the former reach- 
ing from the head to the pelvis, and the latter extending thence 
backward, being respectively called the sacrum and coccyx. 

Tlie true vertebrse comprise the 7 cervical, 18 dorsal, and 6 lum- 
bar vertebrae. Each consists of a body, from which two laminae 
or plates project upwards, terminating in a spinous process. In 
addition to. these are two lateral projections (transverse processes), 
which serve the purpose of firmly connecting the vertebrae together 
by means of the muscles attached to them, and also to the ribs and 
extremities below. Lastly, each vertebra has two small surfaces 
before and the same number behind (articular surfaces), which 
form distinct joints between them. 

Between the body, the laminae, and the spinous process, is an 
opening, more or less triangular in shape, in which lie the spinal 
cord and its investments. The edges of this opening are attached 
to those before and behind by ligamentous tissues (ligamenta mb- 
fiava), which, opposite each intervertebral space, are pierced by 
openings on each side to give exit to the vertebral nerves passing 
out to the exterior of the body and to the extremities. Opposite 
to these openings the bone is notched above and below, and these 
intervertebral notches complete the parts common to the whole 
series. Thus the vertebral or spinal column serves as a firmlv se- 
cured but flexible tube for the lodgment of the spinal cord, vhile 
at the same time it gives passage to its nerves. By this formation 
it is far less liable to injury, and also more useful as an aid to loco- 
motion, than if it were made of one solid piece of bone, which, from 
its length, would be readily broken. 

OF THE HEAD AND FACE, AND OF THE HYOID AKCH. 

Modern anatomists, following out the idea first suggested by 
Maclise and Owen, consider the head as made up of six vertebras ; 
the posterior one, or that nearest to the neck, being the occipital 
bone, the next two being made up of the temporal bone, and the 
ultimate vertebrae consisting of the sphenoid and aathmoid bones. 
This is a somewhat fanciful hypothesis, when worked out in detail ; 
but it is obvious that the several bones of the skull subserve the 
same purposes as the vertebrae, and resemble those parts of the 
skeleton in forming a series of irregular arches to protect the 
22 



254 THE HORSE. 

brain, the division into separate pieces being far more secure than 
if the whole were in one. 




FIO. 1. — PROFILE VIEW OF THE HEAD AND FACE. 

1. Occiput. 7. Malar bone. 

2. Parietal bone. 8. Posterior maxillary bone. 

3. Frontal bone. 9 — 11. Nasal bone. 

4. Petrous portion of temporal bone. 10. Anterior maxillary bone. 

5. Zygomatic arch. 11. Temporal fossa. 

6. Lachrymal bone. 12, 13. Lower jaw. 

The bones op the face, including the lower jaw and os 
hyoides, depend from the neural arch or brain-case much in the 
same way as the ribs and pelvic bones posterior to them are at- 
tached to the vertebrae, and though they enclose organs of less vital 
importance, yet tbey are perfectly analogous to these parts in their 
types and in the offices which they perform. 

OF THE THORACIC ARCH AND ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 

Lying in the horse at some distance posteriorly to the 
three first segments of the hasmal arch (the bones of the face, lower 
jaw, and os hyoides), and separated from them by the neck, where 
there is a hiatus, the thoracic arch and anterior extremities de- 
pend from the vertebras corresponding to them. In many of the 
higher vertebrates the fore extremity is firmly united by a joint 
to the thorax, and may be considered with it ; but in the horse it 
is only attached by muscles, the thorax being slung between the 
upper edges of the blade-bones by means of two broad sheets of 
muscular fibres. Hence the collar-bone is entirely absent in this 
animal ; and thus, while he is free from dislocations and fractures 
of that bone, to which he would be constantly subject if it were 
present, he is rendered more liable to strains and rheumatic in- 
flammations of the muscular sling, by which freedom of action is 
impaired. 



THE SKELETON. 255 

In the articulated skeleton it is usual to consider the 
thorax as made up by the eighteen dorsal vertebrae superiorly, the 
eighteen ribs and their cartilages on each side, and the sternum 
with its cartilages below. But the cavity of the thorax, as bounded 
by the diaphragm posteriorly, is not nearly so large as would be 
supposed from a consideration of the dry skeleton, for though the 
diaphragm is attached to the twelve posterior ribs near their car- 
tilages, yet its surface is so convex towards the thoracic cavity, 
that a very large space within the bony thorax is really occupied 
by the abdominal organs. 

THE PELVIC ARCH AND HIND EXTREMTTTES. 

Behind the thorax occurs a second interval corresponding 
to the loins, where the haemal arch is deficient; but at the pelvis 
the circle is completed by the bones of the ischium, ilium, and 
pubes, united to the sacrum above, and having the hind extremi- 
ties firmly articulated to them at the hip joints. The pelvis con- 
stitutes not only a firm and solid case for the protection of the 
large blood-vessels, and of the urinary and genital organs, but it is 
also intimately connected with locomotion, to which the posterior 
extremities largely contribute. 

THE TAIL. 

This organ appears to be intended chiefly to protect the body 
from insects ; but it also serves to some extent as an aid in bal- 
ancing the body when rapidly moving in any new direction. It is 
made up of from fifteen to eighteen bones. 

THE FORE AND HIND EXTREMITIES CONSIDERED AS 
ORGANS OF SUPPORT AND LOCOMOTION. 

Regarding the limbs as means op support, it must be re- 
membered that the fore limbs are nearer the centre of gravity, 
and, therefore, sustain more weight than the hind. The fore 
quarter is suspended between the bases of the two shoulder-blades, 
chiefly by the serrati magni, and in such a way as to require no 
special muscular contraction. The four parts of which the limb 
itself is composed being bent at various angles, are prevented from 
giving way by the muscular actions of the extensors of the hu- 
merus and ulna, the carpus (or knee) having little tendency to 
yield, and the pastern being supported by the flexor muscles and 
Buspeusory ligament. The hinder limbs, though sustaining less 
weight, are not so favorably circumstanced for this purpose, the 
angles between their several parts being generally more acute. 
But if these are attentively regarded, there is not so much differ- 
ence as is generally supposed. Thus, the first joint, the ilio-fe- 
moral, forms a less acute angle than its analogue, the shoulder 



256 THE HORSE. 

joint. Again, though the stifle joint is considerably bent, it is not 
more so than the elbow joint, which will be clear on comparing 
the two in the skeleton given at page 252. The chief disadvan- 
tage sustained by the hind limbs as means of support will be found 
in the hock, as compared with the knee, the latter being nearly 
straight, while the former is much bent ; but as it has a long lever 
to assist it (the os calcis), and as this is kept in position by the 
powerful hamstring muscles, each of which serves its purpose far 
more completely than the flexor of the carpus inserted in the os 
pisiforme, it may readily be undei-stood that the hind limb is not 
greatly at a disadvantage in supporting the weight of the body. 

As agents OP locomotion, the offices of the fore and hind 
limbs are widely different. Each has been already described as 
consisting of four sections, bent at angles on each other. In the 
fore limb these angles are framed to serve as springs, so that when 
the feet touch the ground, they are enabled to adapt themselves so 
as to avoid altering the line of progression of the body. In those 
animals which have small and short fore legs, as the kangaroo and 
hare, the most rapid locomotion ever consists in a series of curves ; 
whereas, in the horse at full speed, the body progresses in one 
straight line, owing to this elastic structure of the anterior limbs. 
So, also, in descending from an extraordinary leap, the springy ac- 
tion of the fore limbs of the horse is so powerful that he can get 
off again without dwelling, whereas the kangaroo and hare must 
depend almost entirely upon their hind legs, and consequently stop 
for a second after their descent. On the other hand, the angular 
formation of the hind limbs is intended to enable the animal to 
drive its whole body forward, by first flexing all the joints, and 
thus drawing the feet under the belly ; and then suddenly ex- 
tending them with the feet fixed in the ground, the weight is ne- 
cessarily propelled. Or if the feet are not fixed they are lashed 
out backwards, developing the action so well known as " kicking." 
The difference between the powers displayed by the two limbs, in 
straightening their component parts, is well displayed in comparing 
kicking with the striking out of the fore foot, which is compon 
enough among vicious horses. It is true that the latter will some- 
times cause a severe blow ; but it could very rarely break a limb, 
which is the least amount of mischief to be apprehended from the 
full force of a lash out with the hinder limb. 




THE TEETH. 



257 



CHAPTER XIV. 



THE TEETH. 

The teeth are developed within their appropriate canities or 
sockets, which are found exactly corresponding with their number 
in the upper and lower jaws, being narrower in the lower than in 
the upper. Before birth they are nearly all in a state of incom- 
plete growth, covered and concealed by the gums, but soon after- 
wards they rise through it in pairs, the first set, or milk teeth, 
being in course of time superseded by the permanent teeth as in 
all the mammalia. The following is the formula of the complete 
dentition of the horse : — 

Incisors §, canine §, molars ||. 

Each tooth is developed within its corresponding cavity in the 
jaw, and is made up of three distinct substances — cement, enamel, 
and dentine. The cement of the 
horse's tooth (sometimes called 
crusta petrosa) closely corresponds 
in texture with his bone, and, 
like it, is traversed by vascular 
canals. The enamel is the hardest 
constituent of the tooth, and con- 
sists of earthy matter arranged in 
the animal matrix, but contained 
in canals, so as to give the 
striated appearance which it pre- 
sents on splitting it open. Den- 
tine has an organized animal ba- 
sis, presenting extremely minute 
tubes and cells, and containing 
earthly particles, which are partly 
blended with the animal matter in 
its interspaces, and partly con- 
tained in a granular state within 
its cells. These three substances 
are shown in the annexed section 
of an incisor tooth, see Fig. 2, 
which is of the natural size. 

In the molar teeth the ar- 
rangement of these three sub- 
stances is the same, except that the 
cement and enamel dip down into 
two or more cavities instead of one, and are also reflected in a sinu- 
ous manner upon the sides. This inequality in the hardness of the 
22* B 




PlQ. 2. — SECTION OF INCISOR. 

c. Cement ou external surface. 

c. Cement reflected within the cavity 
e. Enamel also reflected. 

d. Dentine 

s. Tartar, colored black by decomposi 
tion of food, contained within the 
cavity. 



258 THE HORSE. 

component parts of these teetli causes them to wear away with 
different degrees of rapidity, and thus leaves a rough surface, 
which materially aids in grinding down the hard grain which 
forms a large portion of the animal's food. In the upper jaw, the 
table presented by each molar tooth is much larger than those of 
the corresponding lower teeth, and therefore it is easy to distinguish 
the one from the other. 

The temporary or milk incisors differ in shape a good deal 
from the permanent set. The milk teeth are altogether much 
smaller, but especially in the neck, which is constricted in them, 
whilst in the permanent set, which go on growiug as they wear out, 
the diameter is nearly the same throughout. The former are also 
whiter in color, and have grooves or indentations on their outer 
surfaces, running towards the gum. Lastly, the mark on the table 
is much slighter than in the permanent teeth. The temporary 
molars are not distinguishable from the permanent teeth of that 
class. 

AS A CONSEQUENCE OP THIS ARRANGEMENT OP PARTS, the 

teeth, as they wear down, present a different appearance according 
to the extent to which their attrition has reached. On this fact is 
founded a means of arriving at a knowledge of the age of the 
horse after he has shed his milk teeth, which as a rule he does in 
pairs at certain fixed periods. In order, therefore, to be able to 
estimate the age of the horse from his teeth, it is necessary to 
ascertain, as nearly as may be, the exact time at which he puts up 
each pair of his milk or sucking teeth, and afterwards the periods 
at which they are replaced by the permanent teeth. Finally, it 
becomes the province of the veterinarian to lay down rules for 
ascertaining the age from the degree of attrition which the per- 
manent teeth have undergone. For these several purposes, the 
horse's mouth must be studied from the earliest period of his life 
up to old age. 

In horseman's language the incisors are called nippers, the 
canine teeth tushes, and the molars grinders. 

By the end op the first year the colt has cut his twelve 
nippers and sixteen grinders, which usually pierce the gums at the 
following months. Before birth, the eight anterior grinders have 
generally stown themselves, followed about a weeek after foaling 
by the two central nippers. At the end of the first month another 
grinder makes its appearance all round, and in the middle of the 
second the next nipper shows itself. By the end of the second 
month the central nippers have attained their full size, and the 
second are about half-grown, requiring another month to overtake 
their fellows. Between the sixth and ninth months the corner 
nippers are cut, and towards the end of the first year reach their 
full size. This first set of nippers consists of teeth considerably 



THE TEETH. 



259 



Hmaller in size than the permanent teeth and somewhat different 
in shape. They are more rounded in front, and hollow towards 
the mouth, the outer edge being at first much higher than the 
inner. As they wear down, these two edges soon become level, 
but the corner nippers maintain this appearance for a long time. 
At six months the central nippers are almost level, with the black 
"mark" in their middle wide and faint; and about the ninth 
month the next nipper on each side above and below is also worn 
down almost to a level surface. 

During the second year the following changes take place : — ■ 
In the first month, and sometimes towards the end of the first 
year, a fourth grinder is cut all round, which commences the set 
of permanent teeth, the three first molars only being shed. At a 
year and a half, the mark in the central nippers is much worn out, 
and has become very faint; the second is also worn flat, but is not 
so faint; and the corner nippers are flat, but present the mark 
clearly enough. In colts which have been reared on corn and 
much hay, the wearing down proceeds more rapidly than in those 
fed upon grass alone. 

The third year is occupied by the commencement of the 
second dentition, which is effected in the same order in which the 




FlO. 3. — THREE-rEAR-OLD MOUTH. 



B. Anterior maxillary bone. 

1. 1 Central permanent nippers, nearly 

full-grown. 

2. 2. Milk teeth worn down. 



3. 3. Corner milk teeth, still showing cen- 

tral mark. 

4. 4. Tushes concealed within tho jaw. 



milk teeth made their appearance. Both sets are contained within 
the jaw at birth, the permanent teeth being small and only par- 



260 



THE HORSE. 



tially developed, and lying deeper than the milk teeth. As the 
mouth grows, it becomes too large for its first set of teeth • and the 
roots of these being pressed upon by the growth of the permanent 
set, their fangs are absorbed, and allow the new teeth to show 
themselves, either in the places of the former, or by their sides, in 
which case they are known by the name of wolf's teeth. This 
change proceeds in the same order as the cutting of the milk 
teeth, commencing with the first grinder, which is shed and re- 
placed by a permanent tooth early in the third year, a fifth grinder 
(permanent) making its appearance about the same time. Towards 
the end of this year the sixth grinder shows itself, but grows very 
slowly, and the central nippers above and below fall out, and are 
replaced by permanent ones, which, as before remarked, are con- 
siderably larger in size and somewhat different in form. 

At three years the mouth presents the appearance shown on 
the preceding page, the development of the permanent teeth vary- 
ing a good deal in different individuals. At three years and four 
or six months, the next nipper all round falls out, and is replaced 
by the permanent tooth. The corner nippers are much worn, and 
the mark in them is nearly obliterated. About this time also the 
second grinder is shed. 

At four years op age, the mouth should differ from that 




FlO. 4. — MOUTH OP THE COLT AT FOUR AND A HALF TEARS. 



A. Anterior maxillary bone. 

1. 1. Central nippers, considerably worn 

down. 

2. 2. The next pair, fully developed, with 

their edges slightly worn. 

3. 3. Corner permanent nippers, in a state 



of growth, with the edges of the 
cavity sharp, and the mark very 
plain. 
4. 4. The tushes showing themselves through 
the gum, but not full-grown. 



represented in fig. 3 in the following particulars : — The central 
nippers begin to lose their sharp edges, and have grown consider 



THE TEETH. 



261 



ably in substance. The next nipper all round has grown nearly 
to its full size, but not quite, and its edges are still sharp, with the 
mark deep and very plain. The corner milk nippers still remain, 
unless they have been knocked out for purposes of fraud, which 
is sometimes done to hasten the growth of the permanent teeth, 
and give the horse the appearance of being four or five months 
older than he is. 

Between four and a half and five years, the corner 
nippers are shed, and the tush protrudes through the gum, These 
changes are shown at fig. 4. 

At five years, the mouth is complete in the number of its 
teeth; and from this date it becomes necessary to study their 
aspect in both jaws. Fig. 5 shows the upper teeth at this age, by 
comparing which with fig. 4 the slight growth in the half-year 




Fig. 5. — upper nippers and tushes at five tears old. 



1. 1. Central nippers, with the mark 

still unobliterated. 

2. 2. Next nippers, with the mark still 

plainer. 



3. 3. Corner nippers, with the edges very 

slightly worn. 

4. 4. Tushes, well developed, and still show- 

ing the groove on the outside plainly. 



may be traced. In the lower teeth of the same mouth, the edges 
of the central cavities are much more worn away, the central 
nipper having only a small black speck in the middle of a smooth 
surface, while the next is much worn, and the corner teeth, though 
showing the mark very plainly, bear evidence of having been used, 
"he tush is much grown, with its outer surface regularly convex, 
and its inner concave, the edges being sharp and well defined. The 



262 



THE HORSE. 




PIG. 6. — LOWER NIPPERS AND TUSHES AT FIVE TEARS OLD. 



1. 1. Central nippers, with their marks 

almost entirely worn out. 

2. 2. Next nippers, showing marks par- 

tially worn. 



3. 3. Corner nippers, with the mark plainly 

seen, but the edges partially worn. 

4. 4. Tushes, with the grooves inside almost 

obliterated. 



sixth molar is at its full growth, and the third is shed to make 
room for the permanent tooth in its place. These two last-named 
teeth should always be examined in cases where there is any doubt 
about the age. After five years, no further shedding occur? in 
any of the teeth. 




Fig. 7. — the low 



*?. The lower jaw. 

1.1. The central nippers, with the 

marks worn out. 
2. '2. The next nippers, with the marks 

disappearing. 
8. 3. The corner nippers, showing the 



UES OF A SIX-YEAR-OLD HORSE. 



mark plainly enough, but with the 
edges of the cavity considerably 
worn. 
4. 4. The tushes, standing up three-quartern 
of an inch, with their points only 
slightly blunted. 



THE TEETH. 



263 



The six-year-old mouth is the last upon which any great 
leliance can be placed, if it is desired to ascertain the age of the 
horse to a nicety; but by attentively studying both jaws, a near 
approximation to the truth may be arrived at. It is ascertained 
that the nippers of the upper jaw take about two years longer to 
wear out than those of the lower ; so that until the horse is eight 
years old, his age may be ascertained by referring to them, nearly 
as well as by the lower nippers at six. But as different horses 
wear out their teeth with varying rapidity, it is found that this 
test cannot be implicitly relied on ; and in crib-biters or wind- 
suckers the upper teeth wear out wonderfully soon. Fig. 7 is 
taken from the lower jaw of a six-year-old horse, showing the marks 
of the central nippers almost obliterated, but still presenting con- 
centric circles, of discolored brown tartar in the middle ; next to 
which is the cement, then the enamel, and the dentine, with a thin 
layer of enamel outside. Up to this age, the nippers stand nearly 
perpendicular to each other, the two sets presenting a slight con- 
vexity when viewed together, as seen in figure on p. 254. After- 
wards the nippers gradually extend themselves in a straight line 
from each jaw, and, in the very old horse, form an acute angle 
between them. 




Fig. 8. — upper nippers in the eight-year-old horse. 



A. Anterior maxillary bone. 3. 3. Corner nippers, showing the mars 

1. 1. Central nippers, worn to a plane plainly enough. 

surface. 4. 4. Tushes, more worn down than in 

2. 2. Next pair, still showing a slight the lower jaw of the six-year-old 

remnant of the cavity. mouth. 

At about the eighth year, the upper nippers present the 



264 THE HORSE. 

same appearance as already described in the lower nippers at sis 
years old. Both tushes are considerably worn away at their points, 
and the upper ones more so than the lower. 

At nine years of age the upper middle nippers are worn 
down completely. The next pair have a slight mark left, but 
their surfaces are quite level, and the corner nippers have onlv a 
black stain, without any central depression. 




FIG. 9. — LOWER NIPPERS AND LEFT TUSH OP A VERY OLD HORSE, THE RIGHT HAVING 
FALLEN OCT. 

After nine years the age of the horse can only be guessed 
at from his teeth, which gradually grow in length, and are more 
in a line with the jaw. The section of each nipper presented to 
the eye becomes more and more triangular instead of being oval, 
as seen in figs. 7 and 8; but after about the twelfth year the 
triangular section disappears, and the tooth becomes nearly round. 
In accordance with the increase of length is the color of the 
tooth altered, being of a dirty yellow in very old horses, with 
occasional streaks of brown and black. The tushes wear down to 
a very small size, and very often one or both drop out. 

Allusion has already been made to the practice of re- 
moving the milk nippers for the purpose of inducing a more rapid 
growth of the next set, which, however, is not materially affected 
by the operation ; but dishonest dealers have recourse to another 
deception, called bishoping, by which an aged horse may be passed 
off upon an inexperienced person for a six-year old. The plan 
adopted is to cut off all the nippers with a saw to the proper length, 
and then with a cutting instrument the operator scoops out an oval 



THE TEETH. 265 

cavity in the corner nippers, which is afterwards burnt with a hot 
iron until it is quite black. It is extremely easy to detect the 
imposition by carefully comparing the corner nippers with the next, 
when it will be seen that there is no gradation from the centre to 
the corner nippers, but that the four middle ones are exactly alike, 
while the corners present a large black cavity, without a distinct 
white edgs to it, the dentine being generally encroached upon with- 
out any regularity in the concentric rings. Moreover, on com- 
paring the lower with the upper nippers, unless the operator has 
performed on the latter also, they will be found to be considerably 
more worn than the lower, the reverse of which ought naturally to 
be the case. Occasionally a clever operator will burn all the teeth 
to a properly regulated depth, and then a practised eye alone will 
detect the imposition. In the present day there is not so great a 
demand for six-year-old horses as was formerly the case, and pur- 
chasers are contented with a nine or ten-year-old mouth if the legs 
and constitution are fresh. Hence bishoping is seldom attempted 
excepting with horses beyond the age of eleven or twelve; and the 
mere use of the burning-iron without cutting off the teeth will 
seldom answer the purposes of the " coper." Formerly it was very 
common to see mouths with the corner nippers burnt to show a 
" good mark," and nothing else done to them; but, for the reasons 
given above, the plan is now almost entirely abandoned. 

Irregularities in the growth of teeth are by no means un- 
common in the horse, often caused by the practice of punching 
out the milk teeth to hasten the growth of the permanent set. 
Instead of having this effect, however, the teeth are induced to 
take a wrong direction, and not meeting their fellows they do not 
wear down as they naturally should. In punching out the corner 
nipper it is very often broken off, and the fang is allowed to remain 
in the socket. The consequence is that the picking up of the food 
does not hasten the removal of the fang of the milk tooth, and in- 
stead of accelerating the growth of the permanent tooth in the 
natural position, it retards it and sometimes drives it to seek a 
passage through the gums behind its proper socket. Here, not 
meeting the corresponding nipper of the upper jaw, it grows like 
a tush, and has sometimes been mistaken for a second tooth of that 
kind. Some horses are naturally formed with "pig jaws" — that 
is to say, with the upper longer than the lower — and in these cases 
the whole set of teeth grow to a great length, and interfere with 
the prehension of the food. 



23 



268 TEE HORSE. 



CHAPTER XV. 

OP THE JOINTS AND MUSCLE, — THE TISSUES ENTERING INFO 
THEIR COMPOSITION. 

Joints — Cartilage — Fibrous Tissue — Physiology of Muscle. 

THE JOINTS. 

The joints are all formed between two or more separate bones, 
having a soft and elastic substance interposed, whose structure 
varies with the amount of motion. Where this is extensive, as in 
the joints of the limbs, the adjacent surfaces are covered with a 
peculiar kind of cartilage arranged in a thin and very smooth layer 
upon them. In addition to this protection against friction and 
vibration, the bones are firmly bound together by strong bands of 
white fibrous inelastic tissue under the general name of ligaments, 
each bundle receiving a distinct appellation. In those situations 
where the motion is limited, a mixture of cartilage and fibrous 
tissue is inserted between the ends of the bones and attached to 
both, as in the vertebras, ischio-pubic symphysis, &c. ; while in 
order to reduce the vibration and friction in certain important 
joints fibro-cartilages are introduced, with both surfaces free, and 
in contact only with the usual layer of cartilage, as in the stifle and 
jaw. A lubricating fluid (called synovia) is required to reduce 
the amount of friction ; and to produce it, as well as to keep it 
within proper limits, a membrane (synovial) is developed. This 
is attached to each bone in a peculiar manner, to be presently de- 
scribed. Lastly, an elastic fibrous tissue (yellow) is met with in 
certain situations, the most remarkable being the great ligament 
of the neck. 

CARTILAGE. 

True cartilage (which is familiarly known to all when it shows 
the large white masses in a breast of veal, as dressed for the table) 
is a homogeneous, white, semi-transparent substance, possessing a 
certain amount of elasticity, and easily cut with a knife. In the 
early embryo it exists as the sole foundation of the skeleton, bone 
being afterwards deposited in its meshes and finally substituted for 
it. This is called temporary cartilage. In after life it invests 
those parts of the bones which enter into the composition of the 
joints (articular cartilage, which is what we are considering just 
now), and also forms the costal cartilages, the ensiform and carini- 
forin cartilages, and those of the larynx, trachea, and nose. Re- 
ticular or membraniform cartilage, differing slightly from true 
cartilage, is met with in the Eustachian tube, the external ear, 
and the epiglottis. 



CARTILAGE. 267 

Structure. — On putting a slice of true cartilage under the mi- 
croscope, it is seen to consist of a number of minute cells disseminated 
through a vitreous substance. The cells are oval, oblong, or poly- 
hedral in shape, and more or less flattened by packing. The mem- 
brane forming the cell-wall is usually blended with the matrix, but 
sometimes consists of concentric layers. White fibres usually en- 
close the mass of cells, and even dip sometimes into those cells 
more superficially placed. The cells or corpuscles are contained in 
hollow cavities, called lacunae. Sometimes they do not entirely fill 
up the lacunas, so that a vacant space is left. The corpuscles are 
usually dispersed in groups, varying in size and form, through the 
matrix ; the groups towards the surface of the cartilage are gene- 
rally flattened conformably with the surface. In articular car- 
tilage, the matrix in a thin section appears dim and presents a 
granular aspect, the cells and nuclei of which are small. The pa- 
vent-cells enclose two or three younger cells. The groups they 
form are flattened near the surface, and lie parallel with it. In the 
internal part of this cartilage the cells assume a linear direction, 
and point towards the surface. Near its attached surface cartilage 
blends with the bone, the cells and nuclei of which become sur- 
rounded by little granular bodies, which seem to be the rudimen- 
tary deposit of bone. In costal cartilage the cells are very large ; 
they contain two or more nuclei, which are clear and transparent, 
and some contain a few oil globules. The cells, internally situated, 
form oblong groups, disposed in lines radiating to the circum- 
ference. We observe a great quantity of intercellular tissue, in 
the form of white fibrous structure, the fibres of which are parallel 
and straight. 

Perichondrium (x£p\, around, and xovSpoc;, cartilage), is a 
white fibrous substance, which covers the external surface of all 
cartilages, except those of the joints. In this membrane the blood- 
vessels which supply the cartilage with blood, ramify. It is analo- 
gous to the periosteum which covers the external surface of bones. 

Nerves. — No nerves have been traced into any of the car- 
tilages; they are destitute of sensation while free from inflam- 
mation. 

Blood-vessels. — Cartilage is non-vascular; it receives its nou- 
rishment from the bone and perichondrium by imbibition. The 
law of endosmose coming into operation when the tissue is thick, 
as in the costal cartilages, canals are formed through which the 
vessels pass to supply the parts which are too far removed from 
the perichondrium. In articular cartilages no vessels enter. When 
cartilage is removed by -mechanical mains, or by absorption, it is 
not regenerated, and when fractured, as in the ribs, there is no 
reunion by cartilage, but by fibrous, or most frequently by oc6eoim 
deposition. 



268 THE HORSE. 

Chemical Composition. — True cartilage contains three-fifths 
of its weight of water. It is ascertained that the cells and the in- 
termediate substance are composed of different materials. The 
membranes of the cartilage cells are not resolved by boiling, and 
offer a lengthened resistance to alkalies and acids. The contents 
of the cells coagulate in water and dilute acids, and are dissolved 
by alkalies. The intermediate substance consists of chondrin, 
which differs from gelatine in not being precipitated by the mine- 
ral acids. 

FIBROUS TISSUE. 

Fibrous tissue exists very generally throughout the body, 
being composed of fibres of extreme minuteness. It is found 
under three forms, as white fibrous tissue, yellow fibrous tissue, and 
red fibrous tissue. 

White fibrous tissue is composed of cylindrical fibres of ex- 
ceeding minuteness, transparent and undulating. They are col- 
lected first into small fasciculi and then into larger bundles, which, 
according to their arrangement, compose thin layers or membranes, 
ligamentous bands or tendons. The membraneous form is seen in 
the periosteum and perichondrium, the fasciae covering various 
organs, the membrane of the brain, &c. — Ligaments are glistening 
and inelastic bands composed of fasciculi of fibrous tissue generally 
ranged side by side, sometimes interwoven with each other. These 
fasciculi are held together by separate fibres, or by areolar tissue. 
They are of all forms, from the round band to the expanded mem- 
brane known as a capsular ligament. — Tendons are constructed 
like ligaments, but usually in larger and more rounded bundles. 
Sometimes they are spread out in the form of aponeuroses. 

Yellow fibrous tissue is also known as elastic tissue, from its 
most prominent physical characteristic, in which it differs from 
white fibrous tissue. It is so elastic that it may be drawn out to 
double its natural length, without losing its power of returning to 
its original dimensions. Its fibres are transparent, brittle, flat or 
polyhedral in shape, colorless when single, but yellowish when ag- 
gregated in masses. When this tissue is cut or torn, the fibres 
become curved at their extremities in a peculiar manner. It is 
met with in the ligamenta subflava of the vertebrae, the liga- 
mentum colli, the chordae vocales, and membranes of the larynx and 
trachea, and the middle coat of the arteries. 

Red fibrous tissue, also called contractile tissue from its pos- 
sessing the power of contracting under certain stimulants, is inter- 
mediate between yellow fibrous tissue and muscular fibre. Its 
fibres are cylindrical, transparent, of a reddish color, and collected 
in bundles. It has no connection with the joints, but is met with 
in the iris, around certain excretory ducts, and in the coats of the 
veins. 



FIBROUS TISSUE— PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE. 269 

Chemical Composition. — The flexibility of fibrous tissue is owing 
to the presence of water in it, of which it contains about two-thirds 
of its weight. A tendon or ligament will readily dry and become 
brittle. Acetic acid causes it to swell up, and here the acid dis- 
closes the existence of nuclei and elastic fibres. It is chiefly com- 
posed of gelatine, which is extracted by boiling. 

Blood-vessels. — White fibrous tissue contains few blood-vessels. 
They usually follow the course of the fasciculi ; in ligaments they 
run in a longitudinal direction, sending off communicating branches 
across the fasciculi, and eventually forming an open network. 
The periosteum is much more vascular, but the vessels do not 
strictly belong to the membrane, as the ramifications found in it 
are chiefly intended for supplying blood to the bone which it 
covers. 

Nerves. — Small tendons contain no nerves, and large ones only 
small filaments. In the periosteum, nerves are abundant; they 
exist there chiefly for supplying the bones with sensibility. The 
pain caused in rheumatism, which is an intensely painful disease, 
is a proof of the sensibility of white fibrous tissue. 

PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE. 

"With trifling exceptions the whole of the movements of the 
body and limbs are performed by the agency of that peculiar sub- 
stance, known in our butchers' shops as " flesh," and recognised 
by anatomists as muscular tissue. This constitutes the chief bulk 
of the soft parts external to the three great cavities (the cranial, 
thoracic, and abdominal), and in the half-starved subject of the 
knacker or highly-trained race-horse, in which the fat has almost 
entirely disappeared, the ordinary observer will detect nothing 
but muscles (with their tendons) and bones beneath the skin 
covering the limbs. On the trunk they are spread out into layers 
varying in thickness, sometimes interrupted by flat tendons, so as 
to form, at the same time, a protection to the organs within, easily 
capable of extension or contraction, and a means of moving the 
several parts upon each other. 

Tendons resemble ligamenti in being composed of white fibrous 
tissue, described at page 268. They serve to connect muscle with 
bone, and are useful as affording an agent for this purpose of much 
less compass than musclo itself, and also of a structure not so easily 
injured by external violence. Thus they are generally met with 
around the joints, the muscular substance chiefly occupying the 
space between them. There are three varieties of tendon — 1. 
Funicular, consisting of cord-like bands; 2. Fascicular, including 
bands of a flatter and more expanded nature; and 3. Aponeurotic, 
which are membra! ous, and are chiefly met with around the ab- 
domen. The fibres are firmly attached to the bones, which gener- 
23* 



270 THE H. RSE. 

ally present rough surfaces for this purpose, and are also closely 
incorporated with the periosteum. This union is so strong, that 
it very rarely gives way ; and when extreme violence is used, 
either the bone itself breaks, or the tendon snaps in its middle. 
Tendons are non-elastic. 

To the naked eye, an ordinary muscle appears to be com- 
posed of a number of small bundles of fibres, arranged in parallel 
lines, and connected by a fine membrane. These bundles may 
still further be separated into what seem at first to be elementary 
fibres ; but when placed in the microscope, they are found to be 
themselves made up of finer fibres united into fasciculi by delicate 
filaments. These ultimate fibrillae are polyhedral in section, ac- 
cording to the observations of Mr. Bowman, so as to pack closely 
together, and are variable in size in different classes and genera of 
animals. They also differ in appearance, one class presenting 
stripes while the other is without them. The former includes all 
the muscles whose movements are under the control of the will as 
well as those of the heart, and some of the fibres of the oesophagus, 
while the latter is composed of the muscles investing the stomach, 
intestines, bladder, &c, which are comprehended under the gene- 
ral term involuntary. 

The Sarcolemma is the name given by Mr. Bowman to the 
areolar tissue investing each fibre, sometimes also called myolemma. 
It is very delicate and transparent, but tough and elastic; in 
general it has no appearance of any specific structure, but some- 
times it presents an aspect as if there was an interweaving of fila- 
ments. 

When A fibrilla of striated muscle is examined under the 
microscope of a high magnifying power, it is seen to present a 
beaded appearance as if made up of a linear aggregation of dis- 
tinct cells, alternately light and dark. When the fibrilla is 
relaxed, each cell is longer than it is broad; but, during the 
action of the muscle, it assumes the opposite dimensions, the increase 
in one diameter being always in proportion to the diminution of 
the other. As the contraction takes place the substance becomes 
firmer than before, but the bulk remains the same, the mass 
merely gaining in thickness what it has lost in length. The 
application of certain stimulating agents will produce the contraction 
for a certain period after life is destroyed, varying according to 
the vitality of the animal experimented upon and the nature cf the 
individual muscle. This is called irritability in the striated 
muscles, which exhibit powerful contractions, alternating with re- 
laxations — while in the involuntary muscles a more steady, per- 
manent, and moderate contraction is met with, to which the name 
of tonicity has been given. 

Pure muscular fibre appears to be identical in composition 



PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE. 271 

with the fibrine of the blood, being made up of about seventy- 
seven parts water, fifteen and a half parts fibrine, and seven and a 
half parts of fixed salts. The whole of the flesh of the body is 
largely supplied with blood, and it is found by experiment, on the 
one hand, that if this is cut off contraction ceases very speedily 
after ; and on the other, that in proportion to the amount of mus- 
cular action will be the demand for fresh supplies of blood. None 
of the striated muscles, except of the heart and the muscles of 
respiration, can go on acting without intervals of rest, during 
which, repairs in their structure are effected. If, therefore, the 
voluntary muscles are to be brought into the highest state of vigor 
and development of size, they must be regularly exercised and 
rested at proper intervals. During the former condition blood is 
attracted to them, and at the same time that fluid itself is ren- 
dered more fit for the purposes of nutrition ; while, during the 
latter period, the increased flow of blood continuing allows for a 
complete reparation of the tissues. Thus we find the muscles of 
the well-trained racehorse full and firm to the touch • but if suffi- 
cient intervals of rest are not allowed between his gallops, they 
will present a very different feel, being flabby and wasted, and in- 
dicating that he has been " overmarked." 

The voluntary muscles assume various shapes, according to 
their positions and offices. Sometimes they are merely long strips 
of muscular tissue, with a very short tendon at each end, as in the 
levator humeri, and are then called fusiform. At others their 
fibres radiate as in the latissimus dorsi, which is thence called a 
radiating muscle. A third set are called penniform, from their 
fibres being attached to one side of a tendon, or bipenniform, when 
they are fixed to both sides like the full tail or wing feather of a 
bird. A muscle with two masses of its tissue connected in the 
middle by a tendon is called digastric. 

In describing each muscle, it is usual to speak of it as having 
an origin from one bone, or set of bones, and an insertion into 
another, the former term being generally assigned to the more 
fixed division of the two. This is, however, merely for the sake 
of convenience, and is entirely arbitrary. 

Burs^e Mucosa, which are shut sacs, varying in size from that 
of a pea to a moderate pear, and lined with synovial membrane, 
are placed on all the prominent points of bone over which tendons 
glide. Thus there is a large one on the point of the hock, and 
another on the elbow, both of which sometimes inflame and 
become filled with synovia, constituting the states known as 
capped hock and elbow. A third situation is just above the 
sesamoid bones, where the swelling from inflammation receives the 
name of windgall. Where, as in the legs, the tendons have to 
glide to a great extent, they are invested with synovial sheaths. 



272 



THE HORSE. 



which are bound down by white fibrous tissue at the points where 
the strain is the greatest. In the limbs the muscles are bound up 
into masses by strong but thin layers of intercrossed white fibrous 
tissue, which receives the name of fascia. In the horse this is 
very firmly attached to the surface of the muscles beneath, and 
greatly interferes with the clean dissection of them. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



THE THORAX. 

Contents of the Thorax — The Blood — General Plan of the 
Circulation — The Veins — Physiology of Respiration. 

CONTENTS OF THE THORAX. 

The thorax, or chest, is that cavity formed by the bodies of 
the dorsal vertebrae superiorly; by the ribs and their cartilages 
with the connecting muscles laterally; by the sternum inferiorly; 
by the diaphragm posteriorly, and by the inner margins of the first 

ribs and body of the first dorsal 
vertebra anteriorly. It contains 
the central parts of the import- 
ant organs of circulation and 
respiration, and gives passage to 
the oesophagus, as it connects 
the pharynx with the stomach. 
As these lie within it, they are 
allowed to play freely in per- 
forming their functions, by being 
enveloped by smooth serous mem- 
branes, called the pleura and the 
pericardium, the latter being 
also protected by a fibrous layer. 
A section of the thorax, as shown 
in the plan, fig 10 will give some 
idea of the relative situation of 
these organs and their invest- 
ments, as well as of the shape of 
the cavity itself in this direction. 
The heart is shown at A, lying 
between the two bags of the 
pleura, in the space called the 
mediastinum. The lungs are shown at B B, covered by a finr« 
serous membrane (H H), pleura pulmonalis, except at their roots, 




llC. 10.— SECTIONAL PLAN OF THORAX AND ITS 
CONTENTS (THROUGHOUT ITS GIRTH-PLACE). 

A. Heart. 

B. B. Lungs. 

C. E. D. F. Walls of the thorax. 
G. G. Pleura costalis. 

H. H. Pleura pulmonalis. 



THE THORAX— THE BLOOD. 273 

where the air-tubes and blood-vessels pass into their substance. 
This portion of the pleura is continuous with the serous membrane 
lining the ribs (Gr Gr, pleura costalis), which thus allows them to 
expand and contract freely, by allowing one surface to glide against 
the other. Thus, the pleura on each side covering the lungs, and 
reflected thence to the inside of the ribs, and the thoracic side of 
the diaphragm, forms a shut sac or bag, which in the natural state 
contains only sufficient serum to lubricate its walls ; but in disease 
this is often increased to an enormous extent, ending in dropsy of 
the chest, or in a collection of pus when the membrane is greatly 
inflamed. 

As the walls of the thorax expand by the action of the muscles 
which move the ribs, as well as by the contraction of the diaphragm, 
rendering its thoracic surface less convex, the cavity is enlarged 
and air is drawn in through the trachea, constituting the act of 
inspiration. On the other hand the contraction of the walls, and 
the forcing upwards against the diaphragm of the stomach and 
liver, by the action of the abdominal muscles, reduces the size of 
the thorax, forces out the air, and induces expiration. The repe- 
tition of these two actions is known by the general term respiration. 

Before proceeding to describe the heart and lungs, it will be 
necessary to examine the blood, for transmitting which fluid to all 
parts of the body the heart and its vessels are formed; while, for 
its proper aeration, the lungs, windpipe, and larynx, are intended 
by nature. 

THE BLOOD. 

The blood, supplied from the food by the digestive process 
hereafter to be described, furnishes all the tissues of the body with 
a constantly renewed stream of the materials which they severally 
require, whether for their nutrition or for the functions of secre- 
tion and excretion performed by the various organs devoted to 
these purposes. It is necessary, therefore, that this fluid should 
be composed of elementary matters capable of combining to form 
the materials required, or of those substances ready prepared. 
Thus, the muscles demand for their proper action fibrine and oxy- 
gen, both of which are largely combined in arterial blood, while 
the nervous system cannot respond to the calls of its grand centre 
without having a due supply of fatty matter, also, in combination 
with the oxygen obtained by respiration, which, however, is not 
only intended to afford this gas, but also to remove the carbon 
that would otherwise accumulate to a prejudicial extent. For 
these several purposes the blood must be supplied with liquid ele- 
ments by absorption from the digestive organs, and with its oxy- 
gen, by imbibition through the delicate membrane lining the lungs 
on which it is spread as it passes through the system of blood- 

s 



274 THE HORSE. 

vessels specially set apart for that purpose. When it is considered 
that the stomach, bowels, liver, pancreas, and spleen, are all occu- 
pied almost solely in supplying the fluid with its grosser materials, 
and that the heart, lungs, kidneys, and skin, are constantly engaged 
in circulating it, supplying it with oxygen, and purifying it from 
noxious salts and gases, its importance in the animal economy may 
be estimated as it deserves. 

As IT circulates in, or immediately after it is drawn from, its 
appropriate vessels, the blood consists of an opaque, thickish fluid, 
composed of water, fibrine, albumen, and various salts, and called 
Liquor sanguinis, colored red, by having suspended in it a quan- 
tity of corpuscles of a peculiar nature, some being without any 
color. When drawn from an artery or vein, and allowed to remain 
at rest for a few minutes, a coagulation takes place, by which the 
blood is separated into the clot (coagulum) and the serum. The 
former is composed of fibrine, having entangled in its meshes the 
corpuscles; and the latter is the liquor sanguinis, without its fibrine. 
The blood corpuscles of the horse measure about the five-hundredth 
part of a line in diameter, being considerably larger than those of 
man, whose diameter is only the four-hundred-and-thirtieth part 
of a line ; those of the ass being still smaller, though only slightly 
so. As in all of the mammalia but the camels, these bodies are 
circular flattened discs, and are of the same size (nearly) in all 
animals of the same species, whatever may be the age or sex. Ac- 
cording to Messrs. Prevost and Dumas, the blood of the horse con- 
tains less solid matter than that of man, in the proportion of 9.20 
to 12.92 in 1000 parts. The temperature is also lower by about 
two degrees of the centigrade thermometer, the pulse slower in the 
proportion of 56 to 72, and the respirations 16 per minute against 
18 in our own species. The shade of color in the red corpuscles 
depends upon the proportion of carbonic acid and oxygen com- 
bined with them. If the former preponderates, a deep purple-red 
is developed, known as that of venous blood; while a liberal supply 
of oxygen develops the bright scarlet peculiar to arterial blood. 
The saline matters dissolved in the liquor sanguinis consist of the 
chlorides of sodium and potassium (which comprise more than one- 
half of the whole salts), the tribasic-phosphate of soda, the phos- 
phates of magnesia and lime, sulphate of soda, and a little of the 
phosphate and oxyde of iron. 

GENEKAL PLAN OF THE CIRCULATION. 

The blood is circulated through the body, for the purposes 
of nutrition and secretion, by means of one forcing-pump, and 
through the lungs, for its proper aeration, by another; the two 
being united to form the heart. This organ is therefore a com- 
pound machine, though the two pumps are joined together, so a»» 



GENERAL PLAN OP THE CIRCULATION. 



275 




to appear to the casual observer to be one single organ. In com- 
mon language, the heart of the mammalia is said to have two sides, 
each of which is a forcing-pump ; but the blood, before it passes 
from one side to the other, has to circulate through one or other 
of the sets of vessels found in the general organs of the body, and 
in the lungs, as the case may 
be. This is shown at fig. 11, 
whera the blood, commencing 
with the capillaries on the gene- 
ral surface at (A), passes through 
the veins which finally end in 
the vena cava (B), and enters 
the right auricle (C). From 
this it is pumped into (D) the 
right ventricle, which, contract- 
ing in its turn, forces it on into 
the pulmonary artery ( E ) , spread- 
ing out upon the lining mem- 
brane of the lungs, to form the 
capillaries of that organ at F, 
from which it is returned to the 
left auricle (Gr) through the pul- 
monary veins. From the left 
auricle it is driven on to the left 
ventricle; and this, by its power- 
ful contractions, forces the blood 
through the aorta (I), and the 
arteries of the whole body, to 
the capillaries (A), from which 
the description commenced. But 
though this organ is thus made 
up of two pumps, yet they are 

united into one organ, and the two auricles and two ventricles 
each contract at the same moment, causing only a double sound to 
be heard, instead of a quadruple one, when the ear is applied to 
the chest. In the diagram it will be seen that one-half of the 
cavities and vessels is shaded, indicating that it contains dark 
blood, while the other contains blood of a bright red color. But 
though we commonly call the one venous, and the other arterial, 
the distinction only applies to the general circulation ; for that of 
the lungs is exactly the reverse, the pulmonary artery (E) contain- 
ing dark blood, and the pulmonary veins bringing it back to the 
heart after it is purified, and has again received oxygen sufficient 
to develop the scarlet color again. Between the auricles and ven- 
tricles, and again at the openings of the latter cavities into their 
respective arteries, valves of a form peculiar to each are placed, so 



FlO. 11. — PLAN OF THE CIRCULATION. 

A. Capillaries on the general surface. 

B. Vena cava. 

C. Right auricle. 

D. Right ventricle. 

E. Pulmonary artery. 

F. Capillaries of the lungs, uniting to form 

the pulmonary veins, which enter 

G. The left auricle. 
H. The left ventricle. 

I. The aorta posterior, dividing into small- 
er arteries, and united with the capil- 
laries at A. 

J. The trunk of the aorta anterior. 



276 THE HORSE. 

as to allow of the free passage onwards of the blood, but not of its 
return by regurgitation. If they become diseased, the action of 
the h^art is impeded, and the circulation of the blood is more or 
less jcriously interfered with. So, also, if the muscular fibres, of 
which the walls of the auricles and in much thicker layers of the 
ventricles, are composed, become weak by want of proper exercise, 
or from the deposit of fat in their interspaces, a corresponding de- 
gree of mischief is effected in the passage of the blood. The force 
with which the left ventricle contracts may be estimated from the 
fact, that if a pipe is inserted in the carotid artery of a horse, and 
held perpendicularly, the blood will rise in it to a height of ten 
feet; and the rapidity of his circulation is such, that a saline sub- 
stance will pass from the veins of the upper part of the body to 
those of the lower in little more than twenty seconds. Now, as 
this transmission can only take place through the current that re- 
turns to the heai't, and passes thence through the lungs and back 
again, afterwards being forced into the lower vessels through the 
aorta, it follows that every particle of this fluid passes completely 
through the whole circulation in the above short period of time. 

THE VEINS. 

The veins generally correspond with the arteries, the blood of 
which they return to the heart. Thus, there is a large vein which 
conveys all the blood from the anterior half of the body supplied 
by the anterior aorta, and this is called vena cava anterior. In a 
similar manner the posterior vena cava is made up of veins which 
accompany the several arteries that are found throughout the body, 
with one remarkable exception connected with the secretion of bile. 

Although, in general, the veins and arteries correspond in 
their ramifications, yet there is a large class of superficial veins 
which are not accompanied by any of the latter vessels. In horses 
which for many generations have been accustomed to fast work, 
these superficial veins are strongly developed, and are particularly 
plain in the Arab and his descendants. As a consequence of this, 
and of the fact that many of the arteries are accompanied by two 
veins, the whole number of veins is much greater than that of the 
arteries, and the internal area of the former may be considered to 
be nearly double that of the latter. In their walls the veins are 
much thinner than the arteries, though, like them, they have three 
coats, the serous and cellular being very similar in structure, but 
the fibrous is very much thinner and devoid of muscular fibres. 
A feature peculiar to the veins is the existence of valves, which 
are sometimes single, at others double, and occasionally arranged 
in threes and fours around the interior of the large veins. They 
vary in numbers, and are altogether absent in the pulmonary veins, 
in the venae cavse, and the vena portse. 



BREATHING. 277 

PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATION. 

The essence of the act of breathing consists in the absorption 
of oxygen from the air, and the excretion of carbonic acid from 
the blood which is circulated through it. In a state of rest this 
interchange must go on with regularity, for carbonic acid is con- 
stantly developed by the decay of the tissues, arising from the 
peculiar necessities of the muscular and nervous tissues, and by 
the conversion of the carbon of the food which appears to be 
required for the development of heat. But when the muscles 
of the whole body are called into play with unusual rapidity and 
force, the development of carbonic acid is largely augmented, and 
thus, not only is there a necessity for extra means of excreting 
the carbonic acid, but there is also a demand for more oxygen to 
unite with the carbon, which is the result of the disintegration 
of the muscular fibres employed. Hence the acts of respiration 
are more complete and rapid during exercise than in a state of 
rest, and while much more carbonic acid is given off, a greater 
volume of oxygen is absorbed from the air which is inspired. 

It is pound by experiment that if venous blood is exposed 
to the action of oxygen, through a thin membrane such as blad- 
der, it absorbs a portion of that gas, and changes its color from 
dark red to a bright scarlet. This is in accordance with the re- 
cognised laws of endosmose and exosmose ; and as the blood cir- 
culates in very fine streams within the vessels of the lungs, whose 
walls are much thinner than an ordinary bladder, it may readily 
be understood that it is placed in more favorable circumstances 
for this interchange of gases than when tied up in a large mass 
within a comparatively thick membrane. On examining the 
structure of the lungs, they are found to be made up of a pair 
of cellular sacs, communicating with the trachea, which admits 
air into them ; and these sacs are furnished with a fine network 
of capillary vessels distributed on their walls, and on those of the 
numerous cellular partitions of which they are composed. Thus 
the blood, as it enters the lungs in a venous state, is submitted 
under very favorable circumstances to the agency of atmospheric 
air ; it readily absorbs the oxygen while it gives off large volumes 
of carbonic acid gas, the result of the combination of previously 
absorbed oxygen with the carbon given off by the various organs 
of the body already allunded to. 

The exact chemical changes which have taken place in the 
atmospheric air exhaled from the lungs and in the blood itself are 
believed to be as follows: 1. A certain portion of oxygen has dis- 
appeared from the air. 2. It has received a considerable volume 
of carbonic acid. 3. It has absorbed fresh nitrogen. 4. It has 
parted with some of the nitrogen of which it was previously made 
up The last two changes cannot readily be demonstrated, but are 
24 



278 THE HORSE. 

inferred from the fact that, under varying conditions of the body, 
the nitrogen in the exhaled air may be either above or below the 
proper proportional. Besides these, the air also receives a con- 
siderable quantity of moisture, and some organic matters, which 
in certain cases are largely increased. The changes in the blood 
are not so fully known ; but it is now the general opinion of phy- 
siologists that the formation of carbonic acid does not take place 
in the lungs, but that the blood arrives there surcharged with it 
already made, and not with carbon, as was formerly believed. The 
action chiefly consists in the excretion of this carbonic acid, and 
in the absorption of oxygen, which is stored up for the several 
purposes for which it is required in the course of its circulation 
through the body. Magnus demonstrated by experiment that 
arterial and venous blood contain very different quantities of car 
bonic acid, oxygen, and nitrogen in a free state, for on obtaining, 
by means of the air-pump, a volume of the gas contained in each 
kind of blood, and analyzing them, he found them to be made up 
as follows : — 

Arterial. Venous. 

Carbonic acid 62-3 71-6 

Oxygen 23-2 153 

Nitrogen 14-5 13-1 

It appears, therefore, that in passing through the capillaries, the 
gas in the arterial blood loses about eight per cent, of oxygen, and 
receives about nine per cent, of carbonic acid, which action is re- 
versed as it passes through the lungs. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

THE ABDOMINAL AND PELVIC VISCERA. 

The Abdomen and its Contents — Physiology of Digestion — Adsorp- 
tion — Structure of Glands and Physiology of Secretion — Depu- 
ration and its Office in the Animal Economy — The Stomach — 
The Intestines — Liver — Spleen — Pancreas — Kidney — Pelvis — 
Bladder — Organs of Generation, Male and Female. 

THE ABDOMEN AND ITS CONTENTS. 

Lying immediately behind the thorax, from which they 
are separated only by the diaphragm, are the important organs of 
digestion, and the space in which they are closely packed is called 
the abdomen. This part is capable of being distended downwards 
and sideways to an enormous extent, or of contracting till the lower 



THE ABDOMEN AND ITS CONTENTS. 279 

walls approach very closely to the upper. The anterior boundary, 
is before remarked, is the diaphragm, the plane of which moves 
considerably in active respiration, causing the flanks, or postero- 
lateral walls of the abdomen, to rise and fall, in a corresponding 
manner, and thus to indicate the extent of distress in an exhausted 
animal, or any peculiarity of breathing, as in " broken wind," or 
in the several inflammatory conditions of the lungs. Posteriorly, 
the boundary is an open one, being the anterior boundary of the 
pelvis, and corresponding with the brim of that cavity. Superiorly 
are the crura of the diaphragm, the lumbar vertebras, and psoas 
and iliacus muscles ; and laterally, as well as inferiorly, the ab- 
dominal muscles, and cartilages of the false ribs. Although the 
abdominal muscles are capable of great dilatation, yet in the 
natural condition they maintain a gentle curve only from their 
pelvic to their costal attachments, and hence the depth and width 
of the back-ribs and pelvis are the measure of the ordinary 
capacity of the abdomen. Shallow and narrow back-ribs give a 
small abdominal cavity, and generally speaking, a correspondingly 
weak condition of the digestive organs; for though this rule is 
not invariable, yet it is one which may be held as a sufficient guide 
for practical purposes. Instances do occur of stout and hearty 
horses possessed of contracted middle pieces, but they are so rare 
as to be merely objects of curiosity. The small space which is 
devoted to the organs of digestion in the horse whose back ribs 
are shallowwill be readily understood by reference to the annexed 
section, in which the enormous mass of intestines and the liver 
have been removed, leaving only the stomach and spleen. When 
the walls of the abdomen are distended laterally and downwards, 
as they always are in horses at grass, the capacity of the abdomen 
is at least doubled. 

The contents op the abdomen are the stomach, the liver, 
the pancreas, the spleen, the small and large intestines, the mesen- 
teric glands and chyliferous ducts, and the kidneys, together with 
their vessels and nerves. Some of these organs are fixed close to 
the spine, as the kidneys and pancreas ; but the others glide upon 
each other as they are alternately empty or full, and to facilitate 
this motion they are (like the lungs) invested with a serous coat, 
the peritoneum. They may be divided into the hollow organs, 
which form one continuous tube (the alimentary), and the solid 
viscera, which, with the exception of the spleen, are all of a 
glandular structure, though differing in their minute anatomy. 
The alimentary canal consists throughout of three distinct layers : 
the external serous coat {peritoneal} , the middle or muscular coat, 
and the internal mucous coat, which are united by cellular mem- 
brane, sometimes regarded as forming two distinct additional coats. 



280 THE HORSE. 

PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION. 

Before proceeding to examine into the anatomy of the ab- 
dominal organs, it may be well to investigate the nature of the 
processes which are carried out by them. To do this, the food must 
be traced from its prehension by the lips and teeth to its expul- 
sion from the anus. Thus, commencing with the mouth, we find 
it there ground into a coarse pulp, and mixed with the saliva, 
which acts as a kind of ferment in converting the starchy matters, 
which form so large a proportion of the horse's food, into sugar, 
and, with the aid of the gastric juice, into the proteine compounds 
necessary for the formation of flesh. Perfect mastication and 
insalivation are therefore highly important processes to healthy 
digestion. When it reaches the stomach, the food undergoes still 
further changes by the agency of the gastric juice and of mace- 
ration ; but this organ being small in the horse, it cannot remain 
there long enough to be converted into perfect chyme (the result 
of the first process of digestion), but is passed on into the duo- 
denum for that purpose. Here it is further elaborated, and re- 
ceives the bile and pancreatic juice, which are poured out through 
their ducts opening on the internal surface of this intestine. The 
nutricious parts of the food are now gradually converted into chyle; 
and as it passes into the jejunum and ilium, it is there absorbed 
by the lymphatics (here called lacteals), whose mouths open upon 
the villi thickly lining this part of the canal. These unite into 
one duct (the thoracic), and the chyle is by it carried into the 
veins through an opening at the junction of the left vena cava an- 
terior, with the allary vein. From the small intestines, the food, 
minus its nutritive portions, is passed on into the large intestines, 
and finally reaches the rectum and anus, in the form known as 
faeces. The peculiar offices performed by the bile and pancreatic 
fluid will be described under the sections treating of each of those 
organs. 

The absorption op fluid from the interior of the alimentary 
canal is effected in two different modes — first, by the lacteals, which 
take up the chyle through their open mouths ; secondly, by the 
veins, which absorb it through their walls by the process known 
as endosmose. In the former case the chyle is at once carried to 
the heart; but in the latter, it passes through the liver, and be- 
comes purified and chemically altered in that organ. The lacteals 
pass through the mesenteric glands, which lie between the layers 
of the mesentery. 

STRUCTURE OF GLANDS AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
SECRETION. 

A gland may be defined to be an organ whose office it is to 
separate from the blood some peculiar substance, which is ponied 



THE GLANDS— DEPURATION. 281 

out through an excretory duct, whose internal surface is continu- 
ous with the mucous membrane, or skin. A simple gland is, in 
fact, nothing more than a pouch of mucous membrane ; and a col- 
lection of these pouches constitutes a compound one, which, if the 
groups of which it is composed are loosely bound together like 
grapes, as in the salivary glands, is called conglomerate ; while, if 
they are united into a solid mass, such as the liver, the term con- 
globate is applied. 

By secretion is understood the process of separation of various 
matters from the blood ; the term being also applied to the pro- 
ducts of the process, such as saliva, bile, &c, which are commonly 
known as secretions. These are all removed from the blood for 
one or two purposes — first, in order to be employed for some ul- 
terior object in the various processes going on in the body, either 
for its own preservation, or that of others ; or, secondly, as being 
injurious to its welfare, and therefore to be discarded. The term 
secretion is sometimes confined to the former, while the latter 
action receives the distinguishing term excretion : but as in many 
cases the fluid which is removed as being injurious to the system 
is also used for beneficial purposes the distinction is not capable 
of being strictly maintained. The nature of the process is es- 
sentially the same in all cases, being carried out by the development 
of simple cells, each possessing its own independent vitality. These 
cells select certain ingredients from the blood, and then set them 
free by the rupture of their walls; and being situated on the free 
surface of the lining membrane of the gland, which is continuous 
with the mucous membrane or skin, the secreted fluid gradually 
reaches the one or the other. It is impossible, at present, to ascer- 
tain the precise means by which each gland is made up of cells 
having special powers of selection ; but that the fact is so, is> 
capable of demonstration. Thus, the cells of the liver select the 
elements of bile ; those of the salivary glands, saliva ; and so on. 
But, as we shall hereafter find, there are minute points of differ- 
ence in the arrangement of these cells in the different glands. It 
is now ascertained that the elements of the various secretions 
exist in the blood ; and therefore the office of the glands is con- 
fined to the selection and separation of their products, and they 
have little or nothing to do with their conversion. 

DEPURATION, AND ITS OFFICE IN THE ANIMAL 
ECONOMY. 

The wnoLE op the various secretions which go on in the 
body are necessary for the due preservation of its health ; but the 
most important of the class alluded to above as excretions, must be re- 
moved from the blood or death will speedily ensue. Thus, if saliva 
and gastric juice, as well as the other secretions aiding digestion, 
24 * 



282 1HE HOUSE. 

are not mixed with the food, the nutrition of the hody will be 
imperfectly carried on, and its health will suffer^ But if the ele- 
ment of bile and urine are retained in the blood, not only is the 
system upset, but absolute death is produced in severe cases. 
Hence it follows, that attention to the state of the organs of 
depuration, or excretion, is of more importance even to those of 
secretion, using these terms in the sense explained in the last para- 
graph. The chief organs of depuration are the lungs, which re- 
move carbon from the blood ; the liver, which secretes the bile ; 
the kidneys which get rid of the urea ; and the skin, which relieves 
it of its superfluous watery and some small proportion of its solid 
particles. Experiment shows that the retention of carbon, or urea, 
in the blood is speedily followed by death ; while the non-secretion 
of bile, if entire, poisons the system ; and in milder cases, its 
absence from the alimentary canal interferes with the due elabora- 
tion of the chyle. 

THE STOMACH. 

The stomach is situated on the left side of the abdominal 
cavity, immediately behind the diaphragm. It resembles in shape 
the bag of the Scotch bag-pipes, having two openings, two curva- 
tures (a lesser and a greater), two surfaces, and two sacs, which 
are generally divided by a constriction. Its volume varies with 
its contents, but in the horse of average size it will not contain 
more than three gallons, while the stomach of man, whose weight 
is only one-eighth that of the horse, holds three quarts. 

THE INTESTINES. 

The intestines, large and small, constitute a hollow tube, 
very variable in diameter, and measuring from eighty to nicety feet 
in length in an average-sized horse. They extend from the stomach 
to the anus ; and though nature has only divided them into two 
portions, the small and large, yet anatomists have subdivided each 
of these into three more, namely, duodenum, jejunum, and ileum 
— coecum, colon, and rectum. 

The small intestines are about seventy feet long, and vary 
from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, except at their 
commencement, where there is a considerable dilatation, forming 
a sort of ventriculus or lesser stomach. They are gathered up 
into folds, in consequence of the mesentery, which attaches them 
to the superior walls of the abdomen, being of very limited extent 
as compared with their length ; and thus they may be described 
as presenting two curves, a lesser mesenteric curvature, and an 
outer or free one covered by the peritoneum. The outer layer of 
the muscular coat consists only of a few and scattered fibres, while 
the inner one is circular in its arrangement, and though thin as 



INTESTINES— LIVER— SPLEEN. 283 

compared with the stomach, yet it is easily distinguished. The 
mucous coat is gathered into a few longitudinal folds when empty, 
which are very marked at its commencement ; but there are no 
valvular appendages as in the human intestines. It is everywhere 
studded with villi or little projections, like the pile of velvet, 
through the open mouths of which the chyle is taken up, and be- 
neath it are numerous glands named after their discoverers. 

The large intestines, as their name implies, are of much 
greater diameter than the small ; but they are not above one-third 
of their length. Instead of being convoluted, they are puckered 
into pouches by a peculiar arrangement of the longitudinal mus- 
cular fibres, which are collected into bundles or cords, and being 
shorter than the intestine, gather it up into cells. The mucous 
membrane also has very few villi, which become more and more 
rare towards the rectum. 

THE LIVER. 

This important organ is in close contact with the right side 
of the diaphragm. It is of an irregular figure thick in the middle 
and thin at the edges ; divided into three lobes ; convex on its an- 
terior surface, where it is adapted to the concave aspect of the dia- 
phragm ; concave posteriorly. The color is that which is so well 
known, and peculiar to itself. It is everywhere invested by the 
peritoneum, excepting the spaces occupied by the large veins as 
they enter and pass out, and the coronary ligament which sus- 
pends it, as well as the three other folds of peritoneum, which 
have also received particular names. 

The function of the liver is doubtless chiefly of a depuratory 
nature, but the soapy naturo of the bile seems to be destined to aid 
in dissolving the fatty materials which are contained in the food, 
and to stimulate the intestines to perform their duties. 

THE SPLEEN. 

The spleen can scarcely be considered as a gland, inasmuch as 
it has no excretory duct, but it contains within its substance a 
number of little bodies, called Malpighian corpuscles, which most 
probably perform the same office as the absorbent glands. Its 
weight as compared with the whole body is about the same as in 
man, whose spleen weighs six ounces, while that of the horse rarely 
Exceeds three pounds. It is attached by the lesser omentum (a 
fold of the peritoneum) to the stomach, and occupies the left side 
of that organ. It is covered by a serous coat continuous with the 
peritoneum, and its internal structure is spongy, and made up of 
cells which contain a large quantity of blood. 

The function of the spleen is not positively ascertained, but it 
is believed to perform the office of a reservoir for the blood re- 
quired by the stomach, with which it is closely connected by a set 



284 THE HORSE. 

of vessels (vasa brevia), and also to effect some change in the blood 
itself. 

THE PANCREAS; 

The pancreas is an elongated gland resembling in structure 
the salivary glands, placed close to the spine, above the stomach. 
It has two excretory ducts, which carry the pancreatic fluid se- 
creted by it into the duodenum through a valvular opening com- 
mon to it and the hepatic duct. The use of the pancreatic fluid 
appears to be similar to that of the saliva. 

THE KIDNEYS. 

The kidneys are two oval organs situated beneath the psoas 
muscles, and only retained in their position by the fatty cellular 
membrane which envelops them, and by the upward pressure of 
the other abdominal viscera below them. The right kidney is 
completely within the ribs, but the left scarcely advances at all 
beyond the eighteenth rib : each averages about forty ounces in 
weight, but there is a considerable variation in size and form. 
Unlike the corresponding organ in the cow, the horse's kidney is 
not split up into lobules, though there is some little irregularity of 
outline and surface. 

THE PELVIS. 

The cavity of the body known as the pelvis is situated be- 
hind the abdomen, with which it communicates freely, each being 
lined by a continuation of the peritoneum. A ridge of bone (the 
brim of the pelvis) is the line of demarcation anteriorly. The 
sacrum and os coccygis bound it superiorly, the anus posteriorly, 
and the ossa innominata inferiorly and laterally. It contains the 
bladder and rectum in both sexes, and in each the organs of gene- 
ration peculiar to it. 

THE BLADDER. 

The bladder is a musculo-membranous bag destined to contain 
the urine as it is gradually received from the ureters, which bring 
it down from the kidneys. It lies in the middle of the pelvis, 
occupying also more or less of the abdomen according to its con- 
dition in point of repletion or emptiness. It is of an oval shape, 
with its posterior extremity somewhat more pointed than the other, 
and called its neck. At this point it gives origin to the urethra, 
a canal for carrying off the urine. It receives the two ureters at 
its superior surface, about an inch in front of the neck, where they 
pierce the several coats in an oblique direction forming a complete 
valve which prevents the return of the urine, and so invisible that 
the presence of two openings is scarcely ever suspected by the 
ordinary observer. Only about one-third of the bladder is covered 
by the peritc^euin the remainder being made up solely of the 



ORGANS OF GENERATION. 285 

muscular and mucous coats which compose all the hollow viscera. 
It is retained in its place by the cellular membrane which connects 
it with the lower walls of the pelvis, posteriorly by the urethra, 
and by the folds of the peritoneum which are continued from it 
to the sides of the pelvis, and are called the broad ligaments of the 
bladder. 

THE ORGANS OF GENERATION, MALE AND FEMALE. 

The male organs of generation consist of the testes and 
their ducts the vasa deferentia, the latter conveying the semen to 
the urethra or to the vesiculae seminales, which are oval bags con- 
nected with the upper surface of the neck of the bladder. Here 
the seminal fluid is stored up for use, and when wanted is conveyed 
into the vagina by means of the external organ or penis. The 
anatomy of the testicles is that which mainly concerns the horse- 
master, as they are generally removed by operation. They are 
contained within the scrotum, which is externally composed of 
skin wrinkled in the foal, but subsequently distended by the size 
and weight of its contents. Beneath this is a layer of a pale yel- 
lowish fibrous membrane called the dartos, which envelops the 
testes and forms a separation between them. A thin coat of cellu- 
lar membrane alone separates this from the double serous mem- 
brane, the tunica vaginalis, which almost entirely envelops each 
testis just as the pleura does the lung. In the early stages of foetal 
life the testes are contained within the abdomen above the perito- 
neum, but being attached to the scrotum by a thin muscle (the 
cremaster) they are gradually dragged downwards through the 
inguinal canal and each brings a double layer of peritoneum, which 
continues its connection through life, so that fluid injected into 
the cavity of the tunica vaginalis will flow into the peritoneum. 
Hence inguinal hernia in the horse becomes scrotal in a very short 
space of time, and rarely remains confined to the former position. 
The testicles with their appendages, the vesiculae seminales, form 
the semen by the usual process of secretion. They are of about 
the size of a duck's egg, and besides their attachment by the re- 
flexions of the tunica vaginalis to the scrotum, they have also the 
spermatic cord which suspends them to the inguinal canal through 
which it passes. This cord it is which is divided in castration, 
and it is well to ascertain its component parts. They are, 1st. 
The artery which supplies the testicles with blood, and is of con- 
siderable size and tortuous in its course. 2d. The artery of the 
cord, small and unimportant. 3d. The veins which accompany 
these arteries. 4th. The nerves and absorbents, the division of 
the former giving great pain and causing a slight shock to the 
system. 5th. The vas deferens or duct carrying the semen to the 
urethra, and possessing walls of such thickness that it feels like' 



286 THE HORSE. 

whipcord under the finger. These several parts are connected 
together by cellular membrane and covered by the two layers of 
reflected peritoneum, namely, the tunica vaginalis and tunica vagi- 
nalis reflexa, by the thin layer of cremaster muscle, as well as by 
a fourth investment, a continuation of the superficial fascia of the 
abdomen. All these parts must be divided before the canal is 
reached, for operating in castration. 

The female organs of generation are essentially the '.va- 
ries, the uterus and its appendages forming the bed in whicl the 
embryo is nurtured to maturity. The ovaries are two small oval 
bodies, about the size of large walnuts, situated behind the kid- 
neys, and having the fimbriated extremities of the fallopian tubes 
hanging loose.y adjacent to them. These tubes, one on each side, 
terminate in the uterus, which is of a remarki ole shape in the 
mare. It consists of a body and two horns. The body has a 
mouth, or os, which opens into the end of the vagina, while, in 
itself, it is oblong, and in the unimpregnated state it is entirely 
contained within the pelvis. Anteriorly it divides into two horns 
(coruua), which diverge towards the loins, turning upwards, and 
lying under the wiDgs of the ossa ilii (see fig. facing p. 251). They 
terminate in rounded extremities. Each cornu receives the fallo- 
pian tube of its own side, the opening being so small as scarcely 
to admit a silver probe. The vagina lies between the bladder and 
rectum, and is about eighteen inches in length ; it is lined with 
mucous membrane, and surrounded with muscular fibres, which 
form the sphincter vaginae. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

THE NERVES AND SPECIAL ORGANS. 

The Nerves — The Organ of Smell — The Eye — The Ear — 
The Organ of Touch — The Foot. 

THE NERVES. 

The nervous system may be compared to the fuel that 
heats the water of the steam-engine, and converts that apparently 
most simple and innocent fluid into the powerful agent which is 
capable of developing almost any amount of force. This fuel, 
however, is itself inactive until it is endowed with life by the 
agency of tire; and, in the same way, the nervous system of the 
animal being must be provided with the living principle, of whose 
nature we can only judge by its effects -when present, and by the 
cessation of all action when absent. There are many processes 



NERVOUS SYSTEM— NOSE— EYE. 287 

which are carried on in the animal as in the vegetable without the 
necessity for any direct stimulus from a nervous centre, such as 
the growth of each separate tissue throughout the body, which 
takes place in the former, just as it does in the latter, by a species 
of cell-development and metamorphosis independent of nervous 
energy ; but though this growth is thus accomplished, yet it would 
soon be starved out for want of pabulum, were it not for the supply 
of food to the stomach, which requires the mandate of the nervous 
system for its performance, and so on with every corresponding 
action of the body. 

The nervous system is made up of two distinct substances, 
one grey in color, and granular in structure, which is the seat of 
all nervous power ; the other white and fibrous, which is the tele- 
graph wire by which this power is communicated. Sometimes the 
grey matter envelops the white, and at others it is enclosed within 
it, but in every case each has its peculiar office, as above men- 
tioned. Each collection of grey matter is called a ganglion, what- 
ever its shape may be ; but the white fibres may be either in the 
form of commissures for connecting the ganglia together, or they 
may be agents for communicating with other organs, and are then 
called nerves. 

THE ORGAN OF SMELL. 

The nose of the horse, like all the solipedes, is endowed with a 
sensibility far greater than that of man ; but in this respect he is 
not equal to many other animals, such as the dog and cat kinds, 
and the sole use which he makes of this sense is in the selection 
of his food. 

THE EYE. 

The organ op sight may be considered as consisting first of 
all of an optical instrument very similar to the camera obscui'a, 
now so commonly used in photography, and secondly of the parts 
which are employed to move, adjust, and protect it from injury. 

The eye itself consists of three transparent humors, which 
answer the purpose of the lens of the camera, by collecting the rays 
of light upon the back of the eye. These are the aqueous in front, 
the crystalline lens in the middle, and the vitreous humor behind. 
The first is a perfectly transparent and limpid fluid, secreted by 
the lining of the chamber in which it lies, and capable of being 
rapidly renewed in case of a puncture letting it out. The lens, on 
the contrary, has the consistence of very hard jelly, and is 
arranged in concentric layers, like the coats of an onion. It is 
merely a double convex lens, precisely like that of the camera in 
its action, and is the chief agent in producing the impression of an 
object upon the sensitive part of the eye. Behind it is the vitre- 
ous humor, composed, like the aqueous, of a .impid fluid, but in- 



288 THE HORSE. 

stead of being unconfined except by tbe walls of the chamber in 
which it lies, it is bound up in a network of transparent cells, 
which give it the consistency and appearance of a delicate jelly. 
Upon the perfect transparency and proper shape of these humors 
depends the sight of the animal ; but in addition to the risk of 
blindness from any defect in these parts, if the investing coats or 
membranes are inflamed or disorganized, their functions are not 
performed, and the sight is either impaired or destroyed. Thus 
the rays of light may be fairly collected, so as to throw the impres- 
sion of every object within the sphere of vision upon the back of 
the eye, and yet the horse may be blind, because the retina or 
expansion of the optic nerve is disorganized by disease. When 
inflammation attacks the coats of the eye, it generally extends to 
the investments of the humors, and to the substance of the lens 
itself, producing cataract or opacity of that part, but it is possible 
to have the sight impaired from a mere defect of shape in the 
anterior coat, so as to make the surface too convex and thus alter 
the focus of the sight. This is the " buck-eye," which leads to 
shying, and is perfectly incurable. The membranes axe, first, the 
cornea, a perfectly transparent coat, placed in front of the eye, and 
inserted, like a watch glass, in the schlerotic coat covering the 
posterior four-fifths of the globe. The latter is a white fibrous 
membrane, strong and inelastic, so as to afford protection to the 
parts within it from external violence. This forms the white of 
the eye, which, however, is only occasionally visible in the horse. 
Beneath the schlerotic is the choroid coat, consisting of a network 
of blood vessels, and lined with a black pigment, which again has 
on its internal surface, at the part opposite the pupil, a greenish- 
white iridiscent lining, called tapetum lucidum, or luminous carpet. 
Lastly, within the whole of this surface is spread a beautiful 
expansion of the optic nerve, called the retina, which receives the 
impressions derived from the rays of light, forming a distinct figure 
upon it exactly similar to the objects which are presented to it, 
except in point of size, and in being inverted. Beyond these parts, 
there is a provision made for moderating the rays of light according 
to their intensity. This is effected by means of an opaque septum, 
pierced with an oval hole — the former being called the iris, and 
the latter the pupil. The substance of the iris itself is composed 
of contractile tissue, which has the power of expanding or contract- 
ing the pupil in obedience to the impression produced upon the 
retina, and thus, if the eye is examined in a strong light, the pupil 
will appear large when shaded by the hand, but contracts immedi- 
ately on exposing the eye. The horse's iris is brown, varying 
somewhat in shade in different individuals, and at the upper part 
of the pupil it presents one or two little floating appendages, which 
serve to moderate the sun's rays. Sometimes the brown color is 



THE EYE— THE EAR. 289 

absent, and the iris is either partially or entirely white, in which 
case it is called a " wall eye ;" but though this is considered 
unsightly, it does not interfere with vision. The iris is stretched 
across the chamber of the aqueous humor, and is thus enabled to 
act freely. There are many other delicate structures worthy of 
being examined, but want of space must prevent any further allu- 
sion to them. 

The appendages of the eye are 1st. The conjunctiva or mem- 
brane protecting the exposed surface of the eye. 2d. The eyelids. 
3d. The membrana nictitans or haw. 4th. The muscles of the 
eye. 5th. The lacrymal apparatus. The conjunctiva covers the 
whole front of the eye, being thin, and perfectly transparent in a 
healthy state, but on the occurrence of inflammation speedily be- 
coming red and puffy. It is reflected from this face to the inside 
of the eyelids, and the whole membrane is extremely liable to in- 
flammation from any external irritation. The eyelids have nothing 
very remarkable about them, being merely cartilaginous shutters 
covered with fine skin, and lined with conjunctiva, and raised and 
lowered by muscles peculiar to them. The membrana nictitans or 
haw is a cartilage lying just within the inner corner of the eye, 
but capable of being thrust outwards so as to partially cover it 
when the muscles retract the eye, and for want of space drive it 
forward. This happens whenever the eye is irritated either by 
an insect, or by the dust or hayseeds which are so often deposi- 
ted upon the conjunctiva, and which, causing the eye to be drawn 
back, displace the fat deposited in the back of the orbit, and this 
again pushes forward the haw. For this reason, in all irritable 
Btates of the eye, the haw is prominent, but it by no means follows 
that its removal will diminish the irritation ; on the contrary, the 
usual effect is to increase it, and the operation is not only useless, 
but injurious. The muscles. move the eye in all directions, and 
have the peculiar property of keeping the long diameter of the 
pupil always nearly in a line parallel with the horizon. Practi- 
cally they are not of any great importance. The lacrymal appa- 
ratus consists of the lacrymal gland, situated beneath the outer 
wall of the orbit, and secreting the tears, which are intended to 
wash the conjunctiva clear of any foreign body. The secretion is 
thrown out upon its surface through a number of small ducts, and, 
traversing from the outer angle to the inner, is conducted through 
two small openings in the lids to the lacrymal sac, and from that 
by the nasal duct to the nose. 

THE EAR. 

This organ is divided into the external ear for collecting the 
waves of sound, and conveying them inwards, and the internal ear 
which is situated within the petrous part of the temporal bone 
25 t 



290 THE HORSE. 

The latter is a very complicated and delicate organ ; but its forma- 
tion does not differ in any essential features from that of the other 
vertebrate animals, nor are the diseases attacking it in the horse 
of any particular importance, so that its description will be omitted. 

THE ORGAN OF TOUCH. 

The sense of touch is necessary for the proper appreciation 
of the mechanical form and nature of the objects placed in appo- 
sition to the body, and of their temperature. It is seated gener- 
ally in the terminations of the nerves of sensation on the skin ; but 
there are certain parts specially endowed with these nerves, which 
in the horse are the lips and the four extremities. 

Every part of the skin is sensible to impressions from ex- 
ternal objects, but the sense of touch, such as we possess in the 
fingers, c;in only be said to reside in the lips, and partially in the 
feet. All these parts are profusely supplied with nerves of sensa- 
tion, and the horse may often be observed to use them in ex- 
amining external objects, especially his lips, which are the most 
delicate of his organs of touch. Mr. Rarey has lately drawn special 
attention to this subject; but it has long been known to those 
who are familiar with the habits of the horse. The feet are also 
largely supplied with nerves, though not to the same extent as the 
human fingers, and being covered with horny matter, the sensi- 
bility of the surface is greatly reduced ; still there can be no doubt 
that the horse uses them occasionally in making out the nature of 
objects presented to him, and this is especially the case with the 
fore feet, though it will sometimes happen that the hind extremi- 
ties are used for the same purpose, as for instance, in ascertaining 
the nature of a hard body before kicking at it. 

THE FOOT. 

It is necessary to examine the structure of the foot most 
carefully, not as an object of curiosity connected with the sense of 
touch, but on account of the numberless diseases and accidents to 
wl ich it is subject. No part of the horse is so liable to the effects 
of hard work and mismanagement as this, and there is conse- 
quently none which more requires our care both in health and 
disease. 

The parts, entering into the composition of the foot, will be 
better understood by a reference to the annexed section of the 
phalanges or fingers terminating the metacarpal or metatarsal 
bones, as the case may be, with their investments. It will be seen 
that there is very little space between the pedal bone and the 
crust, which, together with the sole, forms a horny case or 
natural shoe, for the sensible and delicate investments of the 
bone. So small is this space, that when inflammation takes place 



»v 






THE FOOT. 



291 




TlQ. 12 — SECTION OF THE PARTS ENTERING INTO THE COMPOSITION OP THE FOOT AND THE 
FETLOCK AND PASTERN JOINTS. 



A. Os suffraginis. 

B. Os coronae. 

C. Os pedis. 

D. Ob naviculare. 

E. E. The perforans and perforatum tendons. 
G. Inferior sesanioideal ligament. 



H. Cleft of frog. 

I. Side of frog cleft. 

J. Sole. 

K. Crust. 

L. Coronary substance. 



there is no room for any swelling (the invariable accompaniment 
of that disease), and intense pain is occasioned, as well as rapid 
disorganization of the structure itself. The horny case is 
attached to the foot by a delicate membrane, which lies in folds 
upon the pedal bone, and it can be torn away by violence, or when 
putrefaction has commenced, with great ease. These parts are 
separately displayed. The several parts which we shall have to 
examine, commencing from without, are — 1. The horny case or 
hoof; 2. The parts which secrete it; 3. The arteries which supply 
it with blood ; and 4. The pedal bone and cartilages, as well as 
the navicular bone, which it encases. 

The hoop consists of three distinct parts, which, though in the 
recent state they are inseparably united, may be readily separated 
after maceration for a few days. These are the external wall or 
crust, the sole or slightly concave surface forming the bottom or 
floor of the case, and the triangular central portion of this called 
the frog. The crust reaches from the edge of the hairy skin to 
the ground, and averages about three inches and a half in depth. 



292 



THE HORSE. 



The front is the toe, the back the heel, and the intermediate part 
the quarter on each side. It is said by Bracy Clark to be a 
segment of a cylinder, but it is really narrower at the top thao at 





Fig. 13.— the hoop. 

A. Outer surface of crust. 

B. Inner surface of crust. 

C. Upper surface of sole. 

D. Part corresponding with 

the cleft of the frog. 

E. Coronary band. 



FlG. 14. — FRONT VIEW OF THE FOOT, WITH THH 
HOOF REMOVED. 

A. Coronary substance. 

B. Lamina;. 



the bottom, and it should rather be described as a section of a 
truncated cone. When examined from the side, the anterior sur- 
face should form an angle of about forty-five degrees with the line 
of the sole, and the upper edge or coronary band should join the 
sole, so as to leave a moderate substance at the heel ; for if too 
great the foot does not expand, and is liable to disease from that 
cause ; or if too thin and narrow, the foot is weak and gives way 
downwards, ending in a convexity of the sole instead of the 
reverse. The front of the crust is rather more than half an inch 
in thickness, and in a strong foot of average size gradually 

diminishing to the quarters, at 
the back of which it is generally 
barely a quarter of an inch 
thick, especially at the inner of 
the two. This proportion is 
however confined to the fere 
foot, for in the hind there is 
little difference between the toe 
and quarters in point of thick- 
ness. The superior border, or 
coronary band, is marked by its 
whitish color. On its external 
Fio. 15.— the under sdrface of zz% foot. surface it resembles the crust 
A. cieft of frog. below ; but internally it differs 

c'. ci'ertbe'tween heels. in being smoothly excavated, 




TH2 FOOT. 293 

whilst the crust exhibits perpendicular striae, corresponding 
with the laminse; but this is not well shown in Fig. 13. In 
examining the cut of the sole, Fig. 15, it will be seen that the 
crust is bent inwards towards the frog at the heel on each side ; 
there are the bars, which in the natural foot appear as sharpened 
prominences, extending from the heels into the centre of the foot, 
between the sole and the frog, and which are useful as buttresses, 
supporting the crust from being crushed inwards by the superin- 
cumbent weight. The sole is the plate at the bottom of the foot, 
which should be slightly concave downwards, and is fixed to the 
inner edge of the crust, and the outer sides of the bars, and not to 
their lower surfaces. Its usual thickness is about one-sixth of an 
inch, but it will vary greatly in different horses, and it is thicker 
where it runs back between the bars and the crust. It is secreted 
in plates, which can readily be separated with a knife in that 
direction. The frog is the prominent, triangular, and elastic 
substance, which fills up the space between the heels posteriorly, 
the bars .on each side, and the sole in front. In the middle is a 
longitudinal fissure, called the cleft, the sides of which should 
form an angle of about forty-five degrees. In front of this cleft 
is a solid wedge of the elastic horny substance, constituting the 
frog, which lies immediately beneath the navicular bone and 
has received the name of the cushion. Posteriorly it is spread 
out into a thin band on each side which covers the bulbs of 
the heels, and passes round the upper part of the wall constituting 
the coronary frog-band of Bracy Clark, which is continuous with 
the coronary substance. The structure of the horn which forms 
these three divisions, varies a good deal. In the crust it is fibrous, 
somewhat resembling whalebone in this respect, but not quite so 
hard; these bristly fibres are united by a gelatinous substance, but 
they are arranged so as to lie in straight lines descending from the 
coronary circle to the ground. The wall may, therefore, be 
considered as composed of hairs agglutinated together, and each 
secreted by one of the villi, which are so thickly spread over the 
surface of the coronary circle. The sole is also fibrous, but not 
nearly so much so as the wall ; and the fibres are not arranged in 
bo parallel a manner, taking rather an oblique direction from 
behind forwards, and being more easily separated into scales. 
The frog differs from both, in possessing finer fibres and in smaller 
quantity, in comparison with the gelatine, which formation renders 
it more soft and elastic and also more prone to decomposition. 
The horny matter is sometimes colored a grayish brown, some- 
times white, and sometimes marbled by a mixture of the two 
colors. 

The hoof is developed by secretion, which has its seat in the 
coronary substance and laminae. It consists in a pouring out. on 
25* 



294 



THE HORSE. 



their surface of a plasma, in which roun led cells develop them- 
selves, in correspondence with the villi from which Me secretion is 
poured out. These cells are arranged in layers, corresponding 
with the secretory surface. In the crust this growth takes place 
from the superior border to the inferior, but in the sole and frog, 
from the internal surface to the external. This growth*is constant 
through the life of the animal, and it would give the hoof an 
excessive development if it were not either for the wear of the soil 
in the unshod horse, or of the action of the smith's knife in the 
shod one ; but the increase of the wall being solely from above 
downwards, it does not require any reduction on its external sur- 
face. The coronary substance, sometimes called the coronary liga- 
ment, is a fibro-cartilaginous band intervening between the skin of 

the leg and the hoof, covered 
with cuticle externally, and with 
villi, which form a secretory sur- 
face on the edge towards the 
hoof. It is most liberally sup- 
plied with blood, as we shall 
presently see, and is attached to 
the upper part of the coffin bone 
and extensor tendon by cellular 
tissue. It gradually becomes 
thinner as it descends upon the 
pedal bone, and ends in puckers 
or folds, which are continuous 
with those of the laminae, and 
are not even separable from them 
by maceration. The laminse 
thus continuing upon the pedal 
bone, consist of about five hun- 
dred parallel folds or plaits, 
plentifully supplied with blood, 
and forming a secretory surface, 
which aids the coronary sub- 
stance to form the horn They 
lie upon an elastic substratum 
of fibrous periosteum, which ia 
of great service in taking off the 
jar from the foot in its batter- 
ing upon hard roads, for it ap- 
pears that the weight of the 
body is suspended from these 
plates, and not carried upon the 
sole. The laminae are continu- 
ous at the toe with the sensible 




FlO. 16. — VIEW OF VESSELS OF THE FOOT, IN- 
JECTED. 

1. Plantar vein. 

2. Plantar artery. 

3. Branches to the coronary substance and 

laminae. 

4. Posterior division of plantar artery. 

5. Perpendicular branch. 

6. Anastomosis with opposite plantar artery. 



THE FOOT. 



295 



sole, which is a vascular membrane covering the floor of the 
pedal bone, and secreting the horny sole. In the centre of the 
posterior part of this is the sensible frog, which is of nearly the 
same shape as the horny frog, and is still more liberally supplied 
with blood than the sensible sole. 
The arteries supplying 
these vascular structures with 
blood, and the veins taking it 
back, are of great importance, 
and doubly so because it is in 
these vessels that an operation is 
often performed in inflammation 
of the foot, calculated to afford 
relief by a local abstraction of 
blood. Commencing with the 
large metacarpal artery, which 
is the continuation of the radial 
below the knee, we find it de- 
scending by the side of the 
tendo-perforatus under the pos- 
terior-annular ligament. Imme- 
diately above the fetlock joint 
it splits into three branches ; the 
middle one passing to the deep 
parts of the leg, and the two 
others, forming the plantar arte- 
ries, descend on each side the 
postero-lateral parts of the cor- 
onary substance. Here they 
divide into two leading portions, 
the anterior running round to 
meet its fellow of the opposite 
side, and giving off with it a 
complete fringe of vessels, which 
are displayed in the accompanying representation of an injected 
preparation of the foot. The branches uniting in front of the foot 
and encircling the coronary ligament are called the superior cor- 
onary circle. The posterior division of the plantar artery gives off, 
opposite the pastern joint, the artery of the frog, which descends 
obliquely inwards through the substance of the sensible frog, and 
divides into two branches within it, after which it supplies the whole 
of that substance with numerous vessels, and then goes on to the sole, 
to which it gives off a number of radiating branches. After giving 
off the artery of the frog, the plantar artery en is posteriorly in the 
lateral laminal branch which passes through the foramen in the 
ala of the os pedis, and supplies the laminae. Thus the whole of 




FlO. 17. — VIEW OP THE ARTERIES OF THE FE08 
AND SOLE, INJECTED. 

A. Lower porous surface of pedal bone. 

B. Lateral surface of pedal bone. 

C. C. The plantar veius. 

D. D. The plantar arteries. 

E. Lateral cartilage contracted by drying. 

F. Veins of the frog, injected. 



296 THE HORSE. 

these structures are full of blood-vessels, for not only are the 
arteries above described ramifying thus extensively upon them, 
but the blood is returned by corresponding veins. 

Besides the pedal and navicular bones, there are also 
two cartilaginous plates at the back of each ala of the pedal bone, 
•which are of considerable importance. These have been called by 
the late Professor Coleman the lateral and inferior cartilages, 
whilst others have given them the name of the true and false. 
The lateral cartilages extend backwards and outwards from the 
posterior and upper borders of the coffin or pedal bone. They are 
united in front with the expanded terminations of the extensor 
tendon, and by cellular membrane with the lower end of the os 
coronae. Posteriorly they wind upwards around the ala of the 
pedal bone, to which they are firmly fixed, forming the foundation 
for the heel. But in addition to these lateral or true cartilages, 
there are also two others, of a fibro-cartilaginous nature, which 
commence from the sides of the former and proceed forwards 
towards the heels of the pedal bone, and spread inwards upon the 
surface of the tendo-perforans. They are scarcely worthy of being 
described as distinct cartilages, and appear more like ordinary 
condensed cellular membrane. 

It will thus be seen that the foot of the horse is a most compli- 
cated structure, which is liable to derangement whenever the hoof 
or horny case is interfered with, and this may occur either from 
mismanagement in shoeing, causing mechanical injury, or from 
inflammation of the secreting surface, which wili end in the for- 
mation of imperfect horn, or from punctures or other wounds of 
the foot. Perhaps in no organ does an injury so soon produce a 
return at compound interest, for the inevitable first result is a mal- 
formation of the hoof, and this again only adds to the original 
mischief. Hence it is that in the foot, more than in any other 
pare even, prevention is better than cure, for in many of its 
diseases it happens that a cure cannot be obtained without rest; 
and yet it is also the fact that the secretion of horn will not go on 
perfectly without the stimulus of necessity afforded by exercise. 
The position of the leg is such that its veins have a hard task to 
perform at all times in returning the blood from the feet, but when 
the horse is not exercised at all they become doubly sluggish, and 
congestion in them is almost sure to occur. 





^•IlI?l=IIlJ5c5^5<='/:'3cl5-5</.Po<o-'--^ 



THE 

DISEASES OE THE HOKSE, 



THE ACCIDENTS TO WHICH HE IS LIABLE, 
WITH THEIR TREATMENT. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

THE DISEASES AND INJURIES OF BONE. 

General Remarks — Splints — Ringbone and Sidebone — Ossification 
of the Lateral Cartilages — Bone Spavin — Exostosis of the Hu- 
merus and Scapula — Fistula of the Withers — Poll Evil — Caries 
of the Jaw — Osteo Sarcoma — Fractures. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

The diseases of bone are not commonly attended by any con- 
stitutional disturbance, and neither require an examination of 
general symptoms, nor the adoption of any but local treatment, 
beyond that attention to the health which is always necessary. 
They may all be included under the heads of, — 1st. Exostosis, or 
increased growth of bone. 2d. Caries, or ulceration. 3d Anchy- 
losis, or unnatural union of two bones, in consequence 01 exostosis, 
or caries, or both. 4th. Fractures, or disunion by external force. 
Malignant diseases of the bone also occur very rarely in the horse, 
so that it will be scarcely necessary to occupy any space with their 
description, especially as they are perfectly incurable. 

Exostosis is the result of increased action in the nutrition of 
the part, and is much more prevalent in young horses than in old. 
Indeed, after six or seven years of age it is very rarely met with, 
and never attacks the bones at that age for the first time. It may 
be recognised by a hard swelling of the part, which in recent cases 
is painful on pressure; but sometimes its site cannot be reachrd 
with the finger, and the disease can then only be detected by its 
effects. A blow upon any of the bones, when unprotected by any- 
thing but skin, will produce inflammation followed by exostosis* 

(297) 



298 THE HORSE. 

but the most ordinary cause is the over-stimulus of hard work. 
Heavy horses are more prone to exostosis than light ones, partly 
from the weight of their bodies and their high lumbering action 
jarring their limbs in a greater degree, but also from the more 
spongy and open texture of their bones, which admit of the pres- 
sure of large blood-vessels within them, and are thus more liable 
to congestion, and consequent morbid secretion. Exostosis is shown 
in the form of splints, ring and sidebone, and ossified lateral car- 
tilages, as well as in the growths which occur occasionally in other 
parts of the body which have received no distinguishing name. 
The vitality of the new growth in exostosis is less than that of 
healthy bone, and as a consequence, when excessive inflammation is 
set up in the part, it will often die and be separated by absorption. 

Caries (ulceration) occurs as a consequence of inflammation, and 
in the horse either results from external injury, as in poll evil and 
fistulous withers, or from mismanagement, as in navicular disease, 
which latter affection will be considered under the diseases of the 
foot. It is always attended with pain, and in severe cases with the 
formation of sufficient matter to require an outlet, but in very re- 
stricted ulcerations, such as occur in navicular disease, the pus 
passes into the joint, and is reabsorbed with the synovia. 

Anchylosis, when it is the result of caries in the two adjacent 
surfaces of a joint, produces union between them, but in the horse 
it is generally of a secondary kind, the result of bony growths 
(exostosis), thrown out from the surfaces of the two bones near 
the joint, which coalescing, unite into one mass, and thus destroy 
all motion. 

SPLINTS. 

The strict definition of this disease is " an exostosis from 
the lower part of the small metacarpal bone, connecting it by bony 
union with the large metacarpal bone," but among horsemen, any 
bony growth from the cannon bone is considered a splint, and the 
latter is almost as common as the former. The regular splint rarely 
attacks the outer small metacarpal bone alone, but sometimes in 
very bad cases both are implicated in the disease. It is difficult 
to give a valid reason for this greater frequency of splint on the 
inside than on the out, but it is commonly said that the inner 
splint bone receives more of the weight of the body than the outer 
one, and that it is more under the centre of gravity, but as it is 
merely suspended from the carpus, and is not supported from below 
(in any way, mediately or directly), this can produce no injurious 
effect upon it. The fact is so, however, whatever may be the cause. 

The symptoms of splint are generally a greater or less degree of 
lameness during its formation, but sometimes it may go on to attain 
a large size without any such result, especially if its growth is slow. 



SPLINTS. 299 

and the horse is not severely worked. It is comoionly remarked 
that a splint is of no consequence unless its situation is such as to 
inteuere with the back sinews, or suspensory ligament, and although 
it is quite true, as has been asserted by learned veterinarians, that 
the splint is far removed from the former, and seldom interferes 
with the latter, yet it is almost always directly connected with the 
attachments of the sheath of the tendon, and this being stretched 
every time the leg is extended will occasion the pain which is ex- 
pressed by the limp in the action. The size of the morbid growth 
has no relation with the amount, or even with the existence of 
lameness, for a very small splint will often be far more productive 
of this symptom than a very large one. In examining a leg it is 
often only after careful manipulation in the flexed condition that 
a small bony tumor (of the size perhaps only of a garden pea) can 
be detected, but when once the finger presses upon it, the horse 
will almost invariably be found to flinch, and usually it will be 
thrown out just where the sheath of the tendon is attached. Here 
there is no union between the small and large metacarpal bones, 
and the injury is confined to the inflammation produced in the 
sheath, which will generally go off after proper treatment and rest. 
These small bony growths are not very uncommonly met with in 
the hind legs, but they are not recognised there as splints. No 
constitutional symptoms are met with in these cases, and they must 
be ascertained by the local symptoms alone. Unless the splint is 
in the way of the action of the other foot, and the skin on its sur- 
face is bruised by repeated blows, there is seldom any swelling of 
the soft parts, but when this occurs, the skin and cellular mem- 
brane become puffed and hot, and extreme lameness is the result, 
temporarily aggravated by every blow. 

The treatment of a splint will depend upon the state in which 
it exists, and upon the purpose to which the horse possessing it is 
destined. If no lameness exists, and the blemish is not objected 
to, it is far better not to meddle with it, for in the course of a few 
years it will disappear by absorption as a matter of course. 
Moreover it often happens that in attempting to remove a splint 
by some irritating application, extensive inflammation is set up in 
the fibrous strictures attached to it, and lameness, which was not 
previously in existence, is thenceforth a most troublesome attend- 
ant. If, however, the horse is for sale, in which case the exist- 
ence of a splint would be regarded with suspicion, or if lameness 
has shown itself, it will be necessary to adopt measures likely to 
effect the absorption of the morbid growth, and these are chiefly 
two: — 1st, Sub-cutaneous scarification, or without, a seton, or the 
6eton alone ; and 2d. Counter-irritation by means of some form of 
blister. If the soft parts covering the splint are much inflamed, 
the horse should have his corn taken away, and a dose of physio 



300 THE HORSE 

given him, during which a wet bandaga should he kcjpt constantly 
applied, and indeed, in any case of splint severe enough to require 
operation, the cooling remedies mentioned above should be adopted 
beforehand. The operation is performed with a probe-pointed 
narrow knife, shaped like a scimetar, with the cutting edge on the 
convex side. A small opening is made in the skin about an inch 
below the splint, and just large enough to admit the knife, which 
is then introduced and pushed upwards with its flat side towards 
the skin, till it reaches the tumor, when the convex edge is turned 
towards this, and several extensive scarifications are made in the 
periosteum covering it, after which the knife is withdrawn and a 
fine seton-needle is introduced in its place, and passed upwards 
until it reaches above the splint, when it is pushed through, and 
the tape drawn out, and properly secured with a bandage. Of 
course the horse must be cast and properly secured before resorting 
to the knife. In the course of ten days or a fortnight, the tape 
may be withdrawn, and the splint will almost invariably disappear. 
Sometimes the seton is tried without the scarification, but it is not 
nearly so successful, and is nearly as troublesome an operation. In 
most cases both of these operations are unnecessary, and the 
application of the following blister (which has a tendency to 
produce absorption, independently of its counter irritative powers) 
will have the desired effect. 

Take of Biniodide of Mercury .... 1 drachm 

Lard 1 ounce. Mix, 

and after cutting the hair short, rub a little into the skin covering 
the splint, every night, until a free watery discharge is produced 
from the surface. To facilitate this the leg should be fomented 
with very hot water every morning and afternoon, and this should 
be continued for several days after the ointment has been dis- 
continued. The horse will not gnaw the skin after this applica- 
tion, and it is a very useful one for general purposes, when 
counter-irritation is required to produce absorption. If, after a 
week's interval, the splint does not appear much reduced in size, 
the ointment should be re-applied, and repeated at similar inter- 
vals till the swelling is removed. When the bony growth is very 
extensive, neither scarification nor counter-irritation will be of 
much service, and the leg must be fired, and afterwards repeatedly 
blistered, but even with the best and most energetic treatment, 
the part will seldom become sufficiently sound to stand anything 
but slow work. 

RINGBONE AND SIDEBONE. 

Ringbone and sidebone both consist in the throwing out of 
bony matter about the joints of the os coronae ; the former name 
being given to the disease when it attacks that between it and 



RINGBONE— OSSIFICATION OF CARTILAGES. 301 

the os suffraginis, and the latter when the seat is the parts around 
its union with the os pedis or coffin bone. Very often, and espe- 
cially in heavy cart or dray horses, ringbone and sideboie co-exist 
in the same leg, where the three bones are completely anchylosed, 
and in which, during life, the only action was in the fetlock joint. 
The disease attacks the hind leg as well as the fore ; but it is 
more common in the latter than in the former. 

The symptoms are a greater or less enlargement of the leg, of <* 
hard and unyielding nature, either immediately above the coronet, 
as in sidebone, or a little higher, as in ringbone. In the latter 
case, if thoroughly established, it surrounds the joint, whence the 
name of ringbone; but in the early stages it appears at certain 
points from which it spreads all round. Sidebone is seldom so 
extensive, and usually attacks the postero-lateral parts of the os 
coronas, where the swelling is defined, and, except in very hairy- 
legged or gummy-heeled horses, can easily be felt. In the early 
stages the action is not impeded, but there is more or less soreness 
or lameness. After much bone is thrown out. the joints are either 
completely fixed or their movements are extremely limited. 

The treatment in the early stage is precisely similar to that for 
splint; but the operation of scarifying the periosteum requires 
great care and some knowledge of the anatomy of these joints, or 
the knife will pierce the capsular ligament, and increase the evil 
it was intended to relieve. A seton without the scarification will 
often be of service, and for sidebone, firing in the early stage will 
be serviceable, though it is objectionable on account of the blemish 
it leaves behind. The biniodide of mercury ointment already 
described is most useful in slight cases, but in severe ones it will 
rather tend to aggravate the growth, and when anchylosis has 
mkeu place, nothing but time and patience for the subsidence of 
the inflammation will avail. When this has taken place, and the 
joint is fixed, a high-heeled shoe will enable the horse to work, 
with some awkwardness it is true, and the addition of a leather 
sole, will to sorne exteut take off the jar, which occurs in a greatly 
increased ratio when the elastic action of the pastern joints is 
destroyed. 

OSSIFICATION OF THE LATERAL CARTILAGES. 

This is commonly known as ossification of the cartilages, or 
false ringbone, no other cartilages being subject to ossification, 
and these being therefore known par excellence as the cartilages. 
In heavy cart-horses it often co-exists with ringbone and sidebone, 
especially the latter ; but it also attacks well-bred carriage-horses, 
and high-actioned hacks, which are comparatively free from those 
diseases. 

The symptoms are more or v 2ss enlargement of the back of the 
26 



302 THE HORSE. 

coronet, and heel, the part feeling unnaturally hard and irregu- 
lar or lumpy. If recent, there is generally increased heat on 
careful examination with the hand; but in old standing cases 
there is nothing of the kind to be detected. Lameness is not 
always present, but if the horse is rattled over hard ground, he 
will be more likely to show the effects on the next day, by going 
short and sore, than if he were free from this disease. 

The treatment should be confined to recent cases, for n old 
standing ones, unless lameness shows itself, it is better to avoid 
any interference. A seton, with rest, has sometimes proved very 
efficacious, even in confirmed ossification, and repeated dressings 
with the biniodide of mercury ointment, will, in those cases where 
the inflammation does not run very high, afford the Jest chance 
of causing the absorption of some of the bone, for a complete cure 
is never effected. When there is much heat in the part, bleeding 
from the foot may be adopted, and afterwards, the application of 
cloths dipped in cold water, with the addition of a glass of tincture 
of arnica to quart of water. In confirmed cases, where the parts 
have become callous, a leather sole to the shoe will take off the 
vibration, and should be used during the summer season. Scari- 
fication of the skin covering the enlargement with a lancet, encour- 
aging the bleeding by warm water, and followed by the use of 
cold water as soon as the bleeding has ceased, will sometimes do 
wonders in recent cases. The scarification should be repeated at 
intervals of five or six days, taking care to avoid injury to the 
coronary substance near the hoofs, which is sometimes followed 
by troublesome sores. 

BONE SPAVIN. 

This disease, so frequently the cause of lameness in those 
horses which use their hocks severely (as for example race-horses, 
hunters, carriage-horses, and more particularly cart-horses), con- 
sists in exostosis from the adjacent external surfaces of the tarsal 
bones, always showing itself at the inner side of the hock joint, 
on the scaphoid and cuneiform bones, and extending to the head of 
the internal small metatarsal bone. As in the case of splint, the 
occurrence of exostosis on the internal rather than on the external 
side of the hock has been accounted for by the supposition that 
increased weight is thrown upon the internal small metatarsal bone, 
from the turning up of the outer heel of the shoe, which is the 
common practice of smiths. It appears to me, however, that the 
contrary is the case, and that though more stress is laid upon the 
foot on that side, there is less weight on the inner side of the hock, 
which has a tendency to spring open in that direction. This will 
cause a strain upon the ligaments connecting the tarsal bones, and 
nature coming to their aid throws out bone, which ultimately sub- 



BONE SPAVIN. 303 

Btitutes anchybsis for ligamentous union betwec 1 these bones. In 
all the actions of the hind leg, from the natural shape of the hoek, 
and more especially in those horses which are naturally " cow- 
hocked," there is a tendency to yield inwards rather than in the 
opposite direction. The consequence is thit there is more strain 
upon the ligamentous fibres which connect the scaphoid with the 
two cuneiform and the internal metatarsal, than upon those uniting 
the cuboid with the os calcis and external metatarsal bone. Hence, 
although exostosis does sometimes show itself in other parts of the 
tarsal bones, it here, as in the fore leg, is almost always confined 
to what is called the "spavin place," namely, the contiguous sur- 
faces of the scaphoid, cuneiform, and internal metatarsal bones. 
In very bad cases the articular cartilage becomes involved, and 
there is not only an external casing of new bone, but the internal 
surfaces absolutely coalesce or anchylose. 

The symptoms of spavin are a hard substance showing itself 
beyond the proper level of the hock joint. There may or may not 
be lameness, but if bone is thrown out the disease is established. 
In recent cases whenever the horse is worked he will after rest 
limp in his action, but the lameness soon goes ofi", and does not 
show itself again until the part has been suffered to become stiff 
by a rest of an hour or two. The lameness is very remarkable, 
and differs greatly from that shown in any other disease. The leg 
is drawn up with a quick catch, and yet there is a dragging of the 
limb, indicating not only pain in the joint, but a want of action in 
it. In the early stages the latter is not clearly developed, but 
afterwards it is so well marked that a spavin may be pronounced 
to exist without an examination of the joint. Where lameness is 
not established, great care should be exercised in pronouncing on 
the existence of spavin, for some hocks are naturally formed with 
prominent heads of the internal metatarsal bones, and the inexpe- 
rienced eye and hand are very apt to mistake these for exostosis. 
In such cases, by comparing the two hocks it will generally be 
seen that they are both exactly alike, while in spavin, although 
both joints may be the seat of mischief, yet they will seldom mani- 
fest the disease to the same extent. 

The treatment should be directed to the abatement of the inflam- 
mation which gives rise to the pain, and also to promote absorption 
of the new growth. Veterinary surgeons are very apt to assert 
that the disease cannot be cured, and that a spavined horse will 
always remain the subject of it, and therefore unsound. But prac- 
tically it is known that many a hock which has been the seat of 
undoubted spavin loses all external enlargement, and no lameness 
is shown in it, although tried most severely through a series of 
years. Still on dissection after death, the ligaments will not show 
their natural white and glistening structure, and the ta:sal bones 



304 THE HORSE. 

will be to a certain extent united by anchylosis. In rery bad 
cases there will be also caries of the articulatory surfaces, and with 
it inflammation of the synovial mt mbranes, which may and often 
does exist without the caries. Now as these are much more for- 
midable diseases than exostosis, and far more difficult either to 
cure or palliate, it follows that although certain remedies will be 
generally successful with genuine bone spavin (exostosis), yet they 
will fail when the above complication exists. The treatmeut must 
therefore be adapted to the exact nature and extent of the disease. 
Prior to the adoption of any plan the joint should be rested, the 
outer heel of the shoe should be lowered, the corn should be taken 
away, and the system cooled by appropriate treatment. After 
these precautions are taken, the next thing is to decide upon the 
remedies which will be suited to the case. They ceusist in — 1. 
Blisters, which have a tendency to cause absorption ; 2. Firing; 3. 
Setons, with or without subcutaneous scarification ; 4. Division of 
the nerve. If there is simply a slight exostosis, with little lameness, 
and no evidence of the joint being implicated, the biniodide of mer- 
cury may be applied as described at page 300. Repeated dressings 
will be necessary, and the joint must have at least two months' abso- 
lute rest, the horse being placed in a loose box. This remedy is 
often successful, but it will fail utterly where the exostosis is ex- 
tensive, or there is caries, or even severe inflammation of the 
synovial membrane. Arsenic, sulphuric acid, and other caustic 
applications, have been counted as infallible cures; but while they 
are just as certain to produce a blemish as firing, the extent to 
which the inflammation and sloughing, caused by them, go is far 
more completely beyond our control. Arsenic has been known to 
destroy the joint, by producing a slough of the synovial membrane, 
and it is said that the sulphuric acid, which, however, is often very 
successful, has had a similar unfortunate result; but of its being 
followed by serious blemishes there is abundant proof. Firing is 
the safest, and, therefore, the usual plan adopted for spavin, and 
on the first intimation of the disease it is often adopted without 
any necessity for having recourse to so disfiguring a process. Its 
chief advantage is, that while it is a certain means of establishing 
a strong counter-irritation, it has no tendency to cause any increase 
of inflammation in the structures beneath the skin, and therefore 
the good it does is unalloyed by any counterbalancing evil. It is 
now the fashion to deny its use. and horsemasters are often tempted 
to try some substitute for it in the hope of escaping a blemish ; but 
too often they are compelled to submit to it at last, and probably 
after the disease has been aggravated by some "unfailing" remedy. 
If there is a strong desire expressed to avoid a blemif-h. the vete- 
rinary surgeon is perfectly warranted in doing all in his power to 
effect a cure without the use of the irons; but the mere fashion of 



SPAVIN— SHOULDER-JOINT LAMENESS. 305 

the day should not induce him to decry a plan which has for so 
many years been proved to be successful. In human surgery the 
same course has been adopted, and for the last thirty or forty 
years the actual cautery has been voted "barbarous" in this 
country. Now, however, a counter current is setting in, and it is 
the general opinion of the first hospital surgeons of the day that, 
in certain diseases of the joints, no remedy is nearly so efiicacious. 
All sorts of attempts are made to render the use of the hot iron 
less repugnant to the senses; but in the case of the horse it is only 
necessary to measure its comparative utility and the amount of 
pain which it gives. The former has been already considered, and 
as to the latter, if the irons are properly heated, I much doubt 
whether their action is not less painful than that of any other 
counter-irritant. Setons, perhaps, give less pain if skilfully in- 
serted, and they are admirable remedies, having nearly the same 
beneficial effects as firing, and leaving a far slighter blemish. They 
should be passed beneath a considerable track of the skin, covering 
the " spavin place," and the tape requires to be smeared with blis- 
tering cerate to produce sufficient irritation. Their use by them- 
selves is often sufficient, but when preceded by subcutaneous 
scarification they seem to act even more certainly than firing. 

The method of operation is similar to that described for splints, 
but it requires more knowledge of the anatomy of the parts to 
avoid doing mischief by cutting into one of the joints. There is 
always afterwards considerable effusion into the subcutaneous 
cellular membrane, demanding two or three months for its removal; 
but as the spavined horse requires that interval of rest, this is of 
little or no consequence. When the disease has gone so far that 
no method of treatment will remove it, the nerve above the hock 
may be divided, which will enable the horse to work without pain 
for a time, but the disease goes on the faster, and the benefit 
derived is only temporary. 

EXOSTOSIS OF THE HUMERUS AND SCAPULA.* 

The heads op the bones adjacent to most of the joints of the 
body are more or less subject to exostosis, though not so frequently 
as those of the pastern bones and tarsus. Next to these probably 
comes the shoulder joint, the neighborhood of which is often the seat 
of this disease. The left scapula and humerus of a horse are often 
completely anchylosed, and of course there co-exists a proportionate 

* Shoulder-joint lameness, as it is generally called, is much more frequent 
than formerly, generally resulting in ulceration of the bone. It is readily 
seen by standing before the horse, and is at once detected by holding up the 
sound member from the ground and forcing the animal to stand upon the 
lame one. This is a more serious affection than simple sprain of the ecus 
cles of the shoulder. — Editor. 

2G* v 



306 THE HORSE. 

amount of lameness during the progress of the disease, while after 
the anchylosis takes place the want of action is complete. An 
examination by the hand of the point of the shoulder would readily 
detect so large a growth of bone as this ; but smaller ones are often 
thrown out beneath the mass of muscles surrounding the shoulder 
joint, and consequently beyond the reach of the most accomplished 
finger. The treatment should be on the same principle as for 
spavin, omitting the subcutaneous scarification, which is not here 
practicable on account of the nature of the joint. Blisters, and 
especially with the biniodide of mercury, will be the most likely to 
succeed, but in most cases the cure will be only partial. 

FISTULA OF THE WITHERS.* 

When a saddle has been allowed to press upon the spinous 
processes of the dorsal vertebrae, it produces inflammation, which, 
if neglected, leads to the formation of an abscess. But the situa- 
tion of the part is such that the matter cannot escape, even if the 
skin over the points of the bones is perforated, and it has a ten- 
dency, by the force of gravity, to burrow down among the muscles 
which connect the shoulder-blade with the trunk. The conse- 
quence is, that there is extensive inflammation, and often lameness 
of the shoulder, which could readily have been prevented by using 
proper care before the mischief was done, or removed by the adop- 
tion of suitable treatment afterwards before the disease is con- 
firmed. 

The symptoms in the early stage (that is, before a fistula is 
established) are merely an enlargement of the ends of the spinous 
processes, accompanied by heat and tenderness, but these go on 
until an abscess forms, which may be known to the touch by the 
fluctuating nature of the sensation which it gives on pressure 
by the fingers of each hand. As soon as this is made out, an 
opening should be made as low down as possible on the right side, 
taking care that it will allow all the matter to run out as fast as it 
forms. The reason why the right side should be chosen is, that 
most horses lie down on that side; but if the subject of fistulous 
withers is in the habit of lying on the left side, the opening 
should be made there in preference. When an actual fistula has 
been established, and the matter points before or behind the 
shoulder-blade, a sufficiently large opening should at once be made, 
taking care again that there is no pouch below it which will 
permit any accumulation. It is better to divide even important 
muscles than to suffer this to exist. In recent cases the establish- 
ment of this dependent opening will alone suffice to effect a cure ; 
but in those of long standing, the lining of the fistulous passage 

* Commonly (ailed in the United States, Thiselo. — Editor. 



POLL EVIL— CARIES OP THE JAW. 307 

or passages has become converted into a substance almost resem- 
bling cartilage, and refuses to throw out healthy g.-anulations, so 
as to lead to adhesion of its walls. Here a stimulus must be 
applied to their interior, which may be either mechanical, in the 
shape of a seton tape passed through from end to end and left 
there, or chemical, by means of injections. The latter are best 
composed of chloride of zinc diluted with water. One drachm of 
this should be mixed in a pint of water, and carefully injected 
into every part of the sinus twice or thrice a week. 

POLL EVIL. 

Poll evil is exactly similar in its nature to fistulous withers, 
being produced by a blow on the prominent ridge, which is situ- 
ated on the top of the poll. The blow is generally produced in 
the stable, by the horse suddenly lifting his head aud striking it 
against a low beam or the lintel of the door. Or it may be caused by 
frequently straining against the halter rein, and thus producing 
irritation and inflammation of the part. As the ligamentum colli 
is attached above, and anterior to, the inflamed part, when matter 
forms it is confiued and gives intense pain; besides which, it is a long 
time before it opens a passage by natural means. The symptoms 
are a painful swelling on the poll, of a soft nature, accompanied by 
the sense of fluctuation on examination, just like that described as 
accompanying fistulous withers. The treatme,nt must be precisely 
similar to that described in the last section ; but as the matter 
when formed lies very close to the spinal cord, some caution must 
be exercised in adopting stimulating injections, which are apt to 
produce severe inflammation, likely to extend to these important 
structures. So also in opening it, the knife should not be carried 
deeply into the situation of the spinal marrow, which here lies 
exposed, and is easily divided (as in the operation known by the 
name of pithing), but it should be used in a slanting manner, again 
selecting the right side in preference to the left. A seton is here 
the safest plan for promoting granulation and adhesion, and as the 
fistulous track is seldom very long, the tape will work its way 
gradually out, by which time the cure is effected. 

CARIES OF THE JAW. 

The upper jaw, from its exposed situation, and the 
lower from the same cause, and also from the abuse of the bit, 
are liable to mechanical injury, which ends in caries (ulceration), 
or sometimes in necrosis (mortification) of the part. Caries of 
the lower jaw, between the tushes and grinders, is extremely 
common, owing to the barbarous punishment which is inflicted by 
the use of long levers to curb bits, together with light curb chains. 
The bony plate forming the roof of the mouth is also often injured 



308 THE HORSE. 

by the pressure of the part when a tight noseband is employed to 
keep the mouth shut. Either may be known by the existence of a 
sore of a peculiar character ; there is a depression indicating a loss 
of substance, and in this lies a mass of unhealthy granulation 
(proud flesh), which is not attached to the surrounding surface, 
being only fixed to the bottomofthe cavity, or perhaps partially on one 
side. A watery and offensive discharge goes on constantly, but 
this is lost in the saliva, and very often the only circumstance that 
draws attention to the disease is the constant bleeding from the 
mouth, on the slightest contact of the bit. When this occurs, the 
mouth being full of pink froth, it should be carefully examined, 
and the state of things here described will generally be found to 
exist. The treatment should consist in the adoption of a bit 
pressing upon another part of the mouth, changing the curb for a 
snaffle. The wound should be kept open by the use of caustic 
(lunar) daily, which should be pushed deeply into it for couple of 
seconds, and will destroy the unhealthy granulations. By con- 
tinuing these measures, taking care not to do more with the 
caustic than necessary to keep down the fungous growth, a cure 
can always be effected in course of time, without the aid of the 
trephine or chisel to cut away the diseased bone. 

OSTEO SARCOMA.* 

The jaws are occasionally attacked by a malignant growth from 
their cellular structure of a substance partaking of the nature both 
of cartilage and bone. It increases sometimes to an enormous size, 
and forms a large irregular tumor, which interferes terribly with 
their functions, often growing so as to prevent the closure of the 
teeth. The symptoms are entirely local, and when a large, unwieldy, 
and irregularly hard swelling on either of the jaws is met with, it 
may safely be set down as belonging to this class of disease. No 
treatment is of any avail except excision, which can rarely be carried 
through without rendering the horse unserviceable for his ordinary 
duties. 

FRACTURES. 

Bones are not unfrequently broken in the horse ; but as the 
accident generally occurs either during the violent exertion of the 
muscles of the limb, or from great external force, it follows that in 
most cases the injury to the soft parts is so great as to forbid the 
hope of a perfect reparation. When, for instance, a canna or 
pastern bone gives way during the shock sustained in coming down 

* Osteo Sarcoma is very frequent in the western and south-western States, 
and is known by the name of " Big Head" (Osteo Porosis), arising from 
the deposition of too much bony matter. Treatment is unsatisfactory, as 
the disease is gradual and progressive in its character, stopping mastication ; 
and death from starvation is the result. — Editor. 



FRACTURES. 309 

on hard ground from a leap, either at the moment of the fracture 
or before the horse can be stopped, the upper end pierces the skin, 
and also tears or bruises the tendons which alone connect it to the 
part below. In surgical language, the fracture is a compound one ; 
and from the great tendency to contraction of the muscles, the 
difficulty of bringing the disunited ends into apposition (or setting 
them) is immense. Moreover, the horse is very unmanageable 
when an attempt is made to confine him, and the means which are 
adopted to keep the fracture set must therefore be very complete 
as compared with those which will serve for the restoration of tht 
human being who has sustained a similar accident. Hence, unless 
the animal is wanted for stud purposes alone, or unless the fracture 
is a simple one, with little displacement, it will seldom be worth 
the attempt to procure the union of a broken bone in the horse. 
Many cases are on record in which after a fracture of a canna or 
pastern bone a complete cure has been effected, but they must be 
considered as exceptional, and not as affording as much encourage- 
ment. 

The symptoms of simple fracture are a greater or less 
degree of deformity of the limb, swelling, pain on motion, and a 
peculiar grating or jarring which is felt rather than heard, and 
which has received the name of " crepitus." The last symptom 
can only be made out when the broken ends of the bone can be 
brought together; but when this is impossible, the alteration of 
form is in itself sufficient to lead to a detection of the nature of 
the accident. In fractures of the head and spine there is no 
crepitus felt, and the effect upon the brain and spinal cord of 
pressure will be often the sole means of coming to a correct 
diagnosis. Fractures of the pelvis are very difficult to make out, 
unless the ala of the ilium is broken off, which is a common acci- 
dent, for here the unnatural flatness of the hip, showing itself 
■without any great difficulty of moving the hind leg of that side, 
plainly marks that there is no dislocation, and that the case can 
only be one of fracture. It is always the result of a blow, either 
when the horse is cast in a stall or in passing through a narrow 
door-way, or from a similar cause ; and there will therefore bo some 
swelling of the soft parts which will interfere with the examination 
at the time, but as nothing can be done to restore the broken 
portion to its place, and as there is no doubt about the diagnosis 
from dislocation, this is of little consequence. Fractures of the 
ribs cannot be readily detected ; but as they almost always follow 
a kick on the part, and as they do not require any treatment 
unless their broken ends press upon the important viscera of the 
thorax or abdomen, it will be well to wait for the symptoms which 
are caused by this mechanical irritation before resorting to band- 
ages, &c. "When a fracture occurs in any of the bones of the 



310 THE HOUSE. 

extremities, which are concealed by a large mass of muscle, the 
total inability to use the limb, and the loose way in which it ia 
connected to the body, so as to allow it to be moved in any direc- 
tion, indicate the general nature of the case without difficulty, 
though a careful examination must be made by a skilful surgeon 
before the exact particulars relating to it can be ascertained. 

The treatment will depend upon the bone which is broken, and 
whether the fracture is simple or compound. In most cases of 
the latter description none will avail, and the horse had better be 
destroyed ; but if the owner is averse to this, it will be on the 
whole the best surgery, though apparently not very scientific, to 
encase the parts with adhesive plasters and tow, and then treat 
it as a simple fracture. 

If the bones of the skull are fractured, unless there are 
symptoms of pressure on the brain, it is advisable to leave all to 
nature, simply keeping the patient quiet and low, and if in a high 
state of plethora, bleeding and physicking. 

A broken lower jaw is by no means uncommon as the result 
of a kick. The best treatment is to set the fracture, and then 
mould some gutta percha to it, which may be confined behind by 
strips round the forehead and poll, and before by a padded strap 
passed through the mouth between the nippers and tushes, and 
beneath the tongue. The horse must be fed upon mashes and 
steamed food. 

In fractures of the spine and pelvis nothing can be done 
beyond rest and lowering, if necessary, by bleeding and physic. 

Broken ribs, when they cause inflammation of the lungs or 
liver by their sharp ends pressing upon these organs, may be 
treated by buckling two or three ordinary rollers abreast of one 
another tightly round the chest, so as to prevent the natural dila- 
tation of the thorax, which takes place in inspiration, and which 
keeps up the irritation by constantly moving the ends of the ribs. 
The general means necessary to adopt to relieve the internal mis- 
chief will depend upon its extent. 

When either the scapula, humerus, or femur is broken, 
all that can be done is to sling the horse, and by bandages endeavor 
to bring the limb into as natural a position as possible, and keep it 
there. There must of necessity be great displacement of the ends 
of the bones, and these cannot by any means be brought into appo- 
sition ; but the sides in contact with one another, as they over- 
ride, will unite in course of time, and this is all that can be 
achieved by the utmost efforts of the veterinary surgeon. 

Fractures of the lower part of the tibia, of the radius, of the 
canna bones and the pasterns, if simple, must be treated by adjust- 
ing the ends (which is the chief difficulty, and will often require 
strong extension to be employed), and then adapting to the sides 



FRACTURES— DISEASES OF MUSCLES, ETC. 311 

of the bones splints of wood or gutta percha. If, by the aid of 
assistants, the parts can be brought into a good position, these may 
be carefully adjusted to maintain it, and may be kept in place by 
tapes or straps fastened moderately tightly around them. It is 
useless, however, to attempt a minute description of the means to 
be employed, which can hardly be understood without a demon- 
stration. Many horses have recovered a fair use of the limb by 
the application of splints, without slinging, as they will take care 
to avoid resting on that foot in consequence of the pain it gives ; 
but under the care of an accomplished veterinary surgeon, slings 
will afford the best chance of recovery. 



CHAPTER XX. 

INJURY AND DISEASES OF THE JOINTS, MUSCLES, AND TENDONS. 

Diseases of Muscle, Tendon, and Ligament — Of Cartilage and 
Synovial Membrane — Inflamed Tendinous Sheaths — Inflamed 
Bursa Mucosa: — Strains — Those of the Back and Loins — Of 
the Shoulder — Of the Knee — Of the Fetlock — Of the Coffin 
Joint — Of the Suspensory Ligaments — Of the Back-Sinews — 
Breaking Down — Strains of the Hip- Joint, Stifle, and Hock — ■ 
Curb — Dislocation — Wounds of Joints. 

DISEASES OF MUSCLE, TENDON, AND LIGAMENT. 

Muscle is subject to simple atrophy, with or without fatty de- 
generation. The disease shows itself by a wasting away of the 
part, accompanied by a flabby feel to the touch. It should be 
treated by friction, gentle but regular work, and steel given inter- 
nally, one drachm of the sulphate of iron powdered being mixed 
with the corn twice a day. 

Rheumatic inflammation of a muscle or muscles is one of 
the most common of all the diseases to which the horse is subject. 
Most frequently it attacks the muscles of the shoulder, or of tha 
loins, sometimes both those parts being involved at the same time. 
When acute it receives the name of a chill, and is generally brought 
on by exposing the horse to a draught of air after work, or by im- 
mersing him in cold water up to his belly, with a view either to 
refresh him, or when the groom is lazy, to save him the trouble of 
cleaning. The symptoms are lameness or inability to use the part, 
the horse, when forced to do so, giving expressions of severe pain. 
If the shoulder is affected, the foot is not put to the ground, and 
when the leg is moved backward* «.nd forwards by the hand, great 



312 THE HORSE. 

pain is evidently experienced. In severe cases there is fever with 
accelerated pulse (70 to 80), accompanied often by profuse sweat- 
ing, and heaving at the flanks, the legs remaining warm. After a 
short time the part swells, and is excessively tender. The treat- 
ment should be by a copious bleeding, if the horse is of a mode- 
rately strong constitution ; indeed, in severe cases it should be 
carried on till the pulse is greatly reduced, and repeated the next 
day, if it returns to its original hardness and fulness. The bowels 
Bhould be acted on as soon as it is safe to do so, and if the dung 
is very hard, backraking and clysters should be used, to accelerate 
the action of the medicine. The best aperient is castor oil, of 
which a pint may be given with an ounce of sweet spirits of nitre. 
When this has acted, if the kidneys are not doing their duty, a 
quarter of an ounce of nitre and a drachm of camphor may be 
made into a ball and given twice a day. 

Chronic rheumatism of the muscles is similar in its nature 
to the acute form, but, as its name implies, it is more lasting, and 
of less severity. It often flies from one part to another, attacking 
the ligaments and tendons, as well as the muscular fibres. It is 
seldom much under control, and attention should be paid rather to 
improve the general health than to subdue the local affection. 

Small tumors, of about the size of a pea, often form upon the 
tendons, especially the " back sinews" of the fore legs. They may 
or may not occasion lameness, but they are always to be regarded 
with suspicion. As long as they remain indolent, they are better 
left alone; but when they produce inflammation and pain, the 
best remedy is the biniodide of mercury ointment, described at 
page 300. 

DISEASES OF CAETILAGE AND SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE. 

Cartilage is subject chiefly to ulceration. When this occurs, 
its cells become enlarged and crowded with corpuscles, which burst 
and discharge their contents; the intercellular structure at the 
same time splits into bands, which, together with the corpuscles, 
form a fibro-nucleated membrane on the face of the cartilage. In 
old horses, the ulcerated cartilage covering the tibial surface of the 
astragalus is sometimes converted into a soft fibrous substance, 
which ultimately assumes the appearance of hard and dense bone, 
commonly known as " porcellaneous or ivory deposit." It is ac- 
companied by no symptoms of inflammation ; the sole evidence of 
disease, during life, being a stiffness of the joint, and a peculiar 
grating or crackling noise during all attempts at movement. When 
caries of the head of a bone has caused a loss of substance, the 
cartilage dies, and is gradually broken down by decomposition ; 
but this cannot be said to be a disease of the cartilage itself. With 
the exception of navicular disease (which will be included under 



DISEASES OF CARTILAGE AND SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE. 318 

the diseases of the foot), ulceration of cartilage is not very com- 
mon in the horse. 

Acute inflammation op the synovial membrane is seldom 
met with ; but a chronic state, inducing an excessive secretion of 
synovia, is extremely common. The most usual situation is at the 
hock, where the swelling has received the name of bag-spavin and 
thoroughpin ; but they also occur at the fetlock and knee joints; 
in the former case being sometimes confounded with windgalls, 
which are inflamed bursas mucosas. 

Bog-spavin is very apt to attack young horses, when they are 
over-worked, before being fully seasoned ; but it may occur at all 
ages. It shows itself at the inner side of the joint, because here 
the ligaments are wider apart, and there is more room for disten- 
sion. Its seat is the capsule between the tibia and astragalus, 
which is here unprotected by any strong fibrous covering, and 
readily yields to the gradual pressure of the secretion from its in- 
ternal surface. 

Thoroughpin may be either an increased secretion of the syno- 
vial capsule, between the astragalus and os calcis, or between the 
scaphoid and cuneiform bones, or of the bursa mucosa lying be- 
tween the tendo Achillis and the tendo perforatus. In the first 
of these cases, it often coexists with bog-spavin, and the synovia 
may be made to fluctuate from one bag to the other, the only line 
of demarcation being the astragalo-calcanean ligament. 

Both bog-spavin and thoroughpin may exist, or either separately, 
without occasioning lameness; but where they are just established, 
there is generally some small degree of active inflammation, which 
causes a slight lameness on first going out of the stable, but soon 
disappearing. 

The treatment should be by pressure, kept up for a long time, 
by means of a carefully-adjusted truss, alternated with cold affu- 
sion, and the use afterwards of tincture of arnica, diluted with 
water, as a wash. Subcutaneous scarification has succeeded in 
some few cases in causing the secretion to cease; but it has so 
often produced extensive inflammation of the joint, that the opera- 
tion is by no means to be recommended. Blistering with biniodide 
of mercury has also occasionally answered ; but no plan is so suc- 
cessful, on the whole, as pressure, alternating with cold affusion. 

Delicate young foals are subject to a rheumatic inflamma- 
tion of their synovial membranes, specially displayed in the knees 
and hocks, and apparently caused by exposure to cold. It seldom 
goes on to produce disorganization of the cartilages, but the capsu- 
lar ligaments are distended with thin yellow synovia, causing 
considerable stiffness. The cellular tissue around the joints also 
becomes cedematous, and the legs fill all the way down to the feet. 
It is commonly known among breeders as the "joint evil," and 
27 



314 TEA HORSE. 

though in itself it is not dangerous, yet it marks the existence of 
constitutional weakness which is likely to occasion some more fatal 
malady. The treatment should consist in attending to the general 
health by strengthening the mare, which is best done by giving 
her a drachm of the sulphate of iron in her corn twice a day. 
The joints of the foal should be rubbed with equal parts of soap 
liniment and spirit of turpentine, and it should be assisted to stand 
for the purpose of sucking at regular short intervals if unable to 
help itself. In aggravated cases, however, the foal is not likely 
to recover its general strength, and it may be better to destroy it, 
but so long as it can stand and feeds well hopes may be enter- 
tained of the joints recovering. 

INFLAMED TENDINOUS SHEATHS. 

Every practical horseman is aware that the sheaths in 
which the back sinews and other tendons are lodged are liable to 
inflammation and thickening, without the tendon itself being 
involved. By passing the hand down the leg, an irregular network 
may be felt surrounding the tendons, which move up and down 
without disturbing it; and the surrounding cellular membrane is 
also thickened, and becomes hard and unyielding. There may be 
considerable heat about the part, but often it is quite cool ; and 
the disease may continue for months without any great lameness, 
and with nothing to draw attention to it (excepting a slight 
stiffness on leaving the stable) but the sensation communicated to 
the hand. At length, an unusually severe day's work sets up 
active inflammation, the leg rapidly fills, and there is so much 
lameness as to cause the horse to be thrown by. — The treatment in 
the early stage, should be the use of bandages, constantly kept 
wet with arnica and water, and nothing but walking exercise. 
After the thickening is fully established, no remedy short of 
blistering, or a charge, will be of the slightest avail, with a rest of 
two or three months. 

INFLAMED BURSiE MUCOSiE. 

These synovial bags are liable to inflammation, either from 
hard work, as in windgalls and thoroughpin, or 'from blows, as in 
capped hock and elbow. The latter are said by some veterina- 
rians to be serous abcesses ; but there is no doubt that in all 
horses a subcutaneous bursa exists on the cap of the elbow and 
hock; and these become inflamed and filled with a very thin 
synovia, when they are bruised. They never extend beyond a 
certain size, and have no tendency to burst; nor are they inclined 
to a healthy termination of their own accord, but go on in the 
same condition from year to year. 

Windgalls, or pi fps, are the most usual forms of these en- 



INFLAME.!) BVSM MUCOSA. 315 

largetnents, and may be observed in the legs (hind as well as fore) 
of nearly every hard-worked horse, after a time. Great care in the 
management of the legs by bandaging will sometimes keep them 
off", and some horses have naturally no tendency to form them ; 
but in most cases, on examining the legs, just above the fetlock 
joints, of horses at work, a little oval bag may be felt on each 
side, between the back-sinew and the bone. If recent, it is soft 
and puffy ; but if the work is hard, and the windgall is of long 
standing, it will be as tense as a drum. The synovial bag has no 
communication with the fetlock joint; but there is another sac in 
frcnt of the joint, and beneath the tendons of the extensors, which 
is often enlarged, though not so much so as the seat of the true 
windgall, and which is generally, though not always, continuous 
with the synovial capsule of the joint. — The treatment consists in 
pressure by means of bandages, and the application of cold lotions, 
if the legs are hot and inflamed. Blistering and rest will remove 
them entirely; but no sooner is the horse put to work again, than 
they return as badly as ever. There is no radical cure but subcu- 
taneous puncture and scarification, and this will produce too much 
adhesion to be advantageously applied. 

The form of thoroughpin in which the bursa mucosa be- 
tween the tendo Achillis and the tendo perforatus is inflamed and 
filled with synovia, has been alluded to at page 313, and its treat 
merit is there described. 

Capped hock is often the result of a bruise of the superficial 
bursa, which is situated on the point of the hock, immediately 
beneath the skin. It indicates either that the possessor has kicked 
in the stable or in harness ; but it is more frequently caused in 
the former way than in the latter. The swelling is sometimes 
slight, being then just sufficient to show the point slightly enlarged, 
and to give a soft, puffy sensation to the fingers, where there ought 
to be nothing but bone felt beneath the skin. The bursa always 
rolls freely on the bone, and when large, it can be laid hold of and 
shaken like a bladder oi water. — The treatment should be directed 
to abate any slight inflammation that may exist, if the case is 
established ; but in recent ones, it is doubly necessary to apply cold 
lotions, which, however, there is some difficulty in doing, owing to 
the prominent nature of the part. A piece of stout calico or fine 
canvas may, however, be shaped into a cap, carefully fitting the 
point of the hock; and this being tied by several pieces of tape in 
front of the leg, will allow not only of the application of cold 
lotions, but of pressure also. By this plan, continued for some 
weeks, considerable enlargements have been removed, but they 
are very apt to return on the slightest bruise. Setons through the 
bursa, and injections into its cavity of stimulating applications, 
have often been tried; but they generally do more haiia thao 



316 THE HORSE. 

good, and nothing can be relied on but tbe conjoint use of pressure 
and cold applications. The best lotion is the following : — 

Take of Tincture of Arnica 3 ozs. 

Muriate of Ammonia 2 " 

Methylated Spirit of Wine ... 4 " 

Water 3 pints. Mix. 

Capped elbow is precisely similar in its nature to capped 
hock, and must be treated in the same way. It is also known by 
the name of capulet. 

OF STRAINS. 

The fibres op muscles, ligaments, and tendons, and the 
FASCIA covering them, are all liable to be overstretched, and more 
or less mechanically injured. This is called a strain, the symptoms 
of which are similar to the inflammation of the part occurring 
ideopathically. They are heat, swelling, and pain on pressure or 
movement, shown by flinching in the one case, and lameness in the 
other. In some cases there is considerable effusion of blood or 
serum, the former occurring chiefly in the muscles, and the latter 
among the torn fibres of the tendons or ligaments. The symptoms 
and treatment will depend upon the part injured, which will be 
found described under the following heads ; but in most cases an 
embrocation composed of equal parts of laudanum, olive oil, spirit 
of turpentine, and hartshorn, will be beneficial if applied after the 
first active inflammation has subsided. 

STRAIN OF THE BACK AND LOINS. 

When a young horse has been hunted or ridden with hounds 
over any kind of fence, he is very apt to over-exert himself in his 
awkward attempts to clear the obstacle, and next clay he will often 
show a stiffness of the loins and back, which is seated in the large 
muscles connecting the pelvis with the thorax. He is said to have 
"ricked his back," in the language of the stable, and if the mis- 
chief is confined to the muscles alone, he may generally be per- 
manently cured, though he will be more liable to a return than an 
animal which has never suffered from any accident of the kind. 
If, however, the spinal cord is injured, either from fracture of the 
vertebrae, or from effusion of blood or serum pressing upon it, the 
case is different, and a perfect cure is seldom obtained. It is, 
however, very difficult to form a correct diagnosis between the one 
case and the other, and the treatment may generally be conducted 
with the hope that the more important organ is uninjured. When 
there is complete palsy of the '.ind extremities, so that the horse 
can neither feel nor use them in the slightest degree, the case is 
hopeless. For the manageme.t of the strain of the loins, a full 
bleeding should be adopted, as i generally happens that the horse 



STRAINS. 317 

is plethoric and full of corn. Then apply a double fold of thick 
flannel or serge, dipped in warm water, to the whole surface of the 
loins, cover this over with a layer of indiarubber sheeting, and let 
it remain on, taking care to renew the water if it has become dry. 
It generally produces a copious sweating from the part, followed 
by a slight irritation of the skin, both of which afford relief. In 
three or four days the flannel may be removed, and the embroca« 
tion alluded to above rubbed in two or three times a day, which 
will generally relieve the muscles so much that at the end of a 
week or ten days the horse is able to move quietly about in a 
loose box, and the cure may be left to time, aided by a charge on 
the back. 

STRAIN OF THE SHOULDER. 

Shoulder strain was formerly very often chosen as the seat 
of lameness in the fore extremity, solely because the case is so ob- 
scure that it is beyond the knowledge of the unskilful examiner. 
Nevertheless, it is by no means so uncommon as is supposed by 
some writers, and perhaps it may be asserted that it is now more 
frequently passed over when it really exists, than the reverse. It 
generally is seated in the serratus magnus, or pectoralis transversus 
muscles, but it may also occur in the triceps, or, indeed, in almost 
any of the muscles around the shoulder joint. The symptoms are 
very peculiar, and cannot well be mistaken by a careful observer 
who has once seen a case of shoulder lameness. In all other kinds 
(except the knee), the limb is freely moved while in the air, and 
no pain is expressed until the foot is about to touch the ground; 
but here the lameness is greatest while the knee is being protruded, 
and the limb is slung forward sideways, in a circular manner, which 
gives an expression of great imbecility. It also occasions great 
pain when the foot is lifted and drawn forward by the hand, just 
as in rheumatism of the part (already described at page 312). 
When the serratus magnus has been strained by a fall from a drop 
leap, or the pectoralis transversus by a slip, causing the legs to be 
widely separated, there is often great obscurity in the case ; but 
the history of the accident will generally assist in forming a cor- 
rect diagnosis. The treatment in the early stage will consist in 
bleeding from the plate vein, to the extent of five or six quarts of 
blood, followed by fomentations with hot water, if there is much 
heat and swelling, and giving a dose of physic as soon as the 
bowels will bear it. When the heat has disappeared, or at once, 
if there is none, apply the embrocation described at page 315; and 
if this does not produce relief, add to it one quarter of its bulk of 
tincture of cantharides. 

STRAINS OF THE KNEE. 

The knee, unlike its analogue in the human subject (the 'vrist), 

27 * 



318 THE HORSE. 

is seldom strained in the horse, in consequence of the strong liga- 
ments which bind the bones of the carpus together. Still it some- 
times happens that the internal lateral ligaments are overstretched, 
or, in calf-kneed horses, the posterior common ligaments, or that 
connecting the scaphoid with the pisiform bone, or probably all 
these will suffer from over-extension. The accident may be re- 
cognised by the heat and swelling of the part affected, as well as 
by the pain given on using the joint. The anterior ligaments are 
seldom strained, but are liable to injury from blows received in 
various ways. The treatment should be conducted on the same 
principles as those of strains in the shoulder. Cold applications 
will seldom do anything but harm in the early stage; but after 
hot fomentations have relieved the active mischief, by encouraging 
the effusion of serum into the surrounding cellular membrane, the 
former may be used with advantage. When the heat and other 
signs of active inflammation have disappeared, the biuiodide of 
mercury ointment may be rubbed in, avoiding the back of the joint. 

STRAIN OF THE FETLOCK. 

This accident shows itself at once, in consequence of the super- 
ficial nature of the joint, by swelling, heat, soreness to the touch, 
and lameness. It may be very slight or very severe, but in the 
latter case it is generally complicated by strain of the back sinews, 
or suspensory ligament. The treatment will be precisely on the 
same plan as for strain of the knee. When the anterior ligaments 
of the fetlock joint are strained and inflamed, as so often happens 
with race-horses, the condition is known as "shin sore." 

STRAIN OF THE COFFIN JOINT. 

Dissection proves that this joint is sometimes the seat of 
strain ; but it is almost impossible to ascertain its existence with 
certainty during life. The diagnosis is, however, not of much 
consequence, as the treatment will be the same, whether the coffin 
joint, or the navicular joint is the seat of the mischief. In any 
case, if severe, bleeding from the toe should be had recourse to, 
followed by cold applications around the coronet, by means of a 
Strip of flannel or felt, tied loosely around the pastern, and kept 
constantly wet. Wher. the heat has subsided the coronet should 
be blistered. 

STRAIN OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS. 

The suspensory ligament not being elastic like the back 
sinews (which, though not in themselves extensible, are the pro- 
longations of muscles which have that property), is very liable to 
strains, especially in th ; hunter, and to a less degree in the race- 
horse. The accident is readily made out, for there is local swelling 



STRAINS. 319 

and tenderness, and in the well-bred horse, which is alone likely 
to meet with a strain of this kind, the leg is rarely sufficiently 
gummy to prevent the finger from making out the condition of the 
ligaments and tendons. There is no giving away of the joints as 
in " break-down," but on the contrary the leg is flexed, and if the 
case is a bad one, the toe only is allowed to touch the ground. In 
ordinary cases, however, there is merely slight swelling of the 
suspensory ligament in a limited spot usually near its bifurcation, 
or sometimes in one division only close above the sesamoid bone to 
which it is attached. The horse can stand readily on that leg, 
but on being trotted he limps a good deal. Sometimes, however, 
there is a swelling of the feet without lameness, but in this case 
the enlargement is generally due to an effusion of serum into the 
cellular covering of the ligament, and not to an actual strain of its 
fibres. — The treatment will depend greatly upon the extent of the 
mischief; if there is no great injury done, and the enlargement 
is chiefly from effusion of serum, rest and cold applications by 
means of bandages or otherwise will in the course of two or three 
months effect a cure. Generally, however, the case will last six 
or eight months before the ligament recovers its tone ; and in a 
valuable horse no attempt should be made to work him before that 
time. Where the swelling is small, as it generally is, bandages 
have no power over it, as the projection of the flexor tendons keeps 
the pressure off the injured part. Here, dipping the leg in a 
bucket of water every hour will be of far more service than a 
bandage, and the sudden shock of the cold water will be doubly 
efficacious. After all heat has disappeared the biniodide of 
mercury may be used as a blister two or three times, and then the 
horse may either be turned out, or put into a loose box for three 
or four months, after which walking exercise will complete the 
cure. 

STRAIN OF THE BACK SINEWS. 

In this accident the position of the leg is the same as in 
strain of the suspensory ligament, and there is no giving way of 
the joints. The flexor tendons are enlarged, hot, and tender, and 
there is great lameness, the horse having the power to flex the joints 
below the knee, but resolutely objecting to extend them, by bearing 
what little weight is unavoidable upon his toe. The case is often 
confounded with a "breakdown," but it may readily be distin- 
guished by the fact that in the latter the joints give way on putting 
the weight upon them, whilst in mere strains they do not, and 
the tendency is to the opposite extreme. Frequently after a bad 
strain of the flexor tendons, the fetlock is " over shot," or beyond 
the upright, in consequence of the continued flexion of the joint, 
to prevent pressure upon the injured fibres, and in the manage- 
ment this result should be carofully guarded against. The injury 



320 THE HORSE. 

is generally confined to the sheath of the tendons, which in most 
cases gradually puts on an inflammatory condition for some time 
before actual lameness is observed. In bad cases, however, the 
ligamentous fibres which are given off by the posterior carpal 
ligament to the flexor tendons are ruptured, greatly increasing the 
amount of inflammation and subsequent loss of strength. In any 
case the tendon feels spongy, and slightly enlarged, and there is 
more or less soreness on pressure and on being trotted, but in the 
latter case exercise removes the tenderness, and very often tempo- 
rarily causes an absorption of the effused fluid, which is again 
deposited during rest. This state of things goes on for a time, the 
groom doing all in his power to alleviate it by wet bandages, &c, 
but at last a severe race or gallop brings on an extra amount of 
inflammation, with or without actual strain of the fibres of the 
tendon, and then there can be no doubt about the propriety of 
rest and severe treatment. It often happens that both legs are 
slightly affected, but one being more tender than the other, the 
horse attempts to save it by changing legs, the consequence of 
which is that the comparatively sound tendons are strained, and 
he returns to his stable with both legs in a bad state, but with one 
of them requiring immediate attention. — The treatment should be 
by local bleeding (from the arm, thigh, or toe), followed at first by 
warm fomentations, and in a few days by cold lotions. A high- 
heeled shoe (called a patten) should be put on the foot, so as to 
allow the horse to rest part of the weight upon the heel without 
distressing the tendon, and this will have a tendency to prevent 
him from over shooting at the fetlock joint, which he will other- 
wise be very apt to do from constantly balancing his leg on the toe. 
After three or four days the hot fomentations will have done what 
is wanted, and a cold lotion may be applied by means of a loose 
linen bandage. The best is composed as follows: — 

Take of Muriate of Ammonia 2 oz. 

Vinegar \ pint. 

Methylated Spirit of Wine . . . . \ pint. 

Water 2 quarts. Mix. 

With this the bandage should be kept constantly wet, the applica- 
tion being continued for a fortnight at least, during which time 
the patient must be kept cool, by lowering his food, and giving 
him a dose of physic. At the end of three weeks or a month 
from the accident, the leg must be either blistered or fired, the 
choice depending upon the extent of injury, and the desire to avoid 
a blemish if such a feeling exists. The former is the more effica- 
cious plan no doubt, but blistering will frequently suffice in mild 
cases. If, however, the tendons at the end of a month continue 
greatly enlarged, a cure can hardly be expected without the use of 
the " irons." 



BREAKING DOWN. 321 



BREAKING DOWN. 

Great confusion exists among trainers as to the exact nature 
of this accident, which is considered by the veterinary surgeon to 
consist in an actual rupture of the suspensory ligament either 
above or below the sesamoid bones, which, in fact, merely separate 
this apparatus of suspension into two portions, just as the patella 
intervenes between the rectus femoris and the tibia. Whichever 
part of the suspensory apparatus is gone (whether the superior or 
inferior sesamoidal ligament is immaterial), the fetlock and pastern 
joints lose their whole inelastic support; and the flexor tendons, 
together with their ligamentous fibres which they receive from the 
carpus, giving way, as they must do, to allow of the accident 
taking place, the toe is turned up, and the fetlock joint bears 
upon the ground. This is a complete " break down ;" but there 
are many cases in which the destruction of the ligamentous fibres 
is not complete, and the joint, though much lowered, does not 
actually touch the ground. These .are still called breaks down, 
and must be regarded as such, and as quite distinct from strains 
of the flexor tendons. The accident generally occurs in a tired 
horse, when the flexor muscles do not continue to support the liga- 
ments, from which circumstance it so often happens in the last 
few strides of a race. The symptoms are a partial or entire giving 
way of the fetlock joint downwards, so that the back of it either 
touches the ground, or nearly so, when the weight is thrown upon 
it. Usually, however, after the horse is pulled up, he hops on 
three legs, and refuses altogether to put that which is broken down 
to the ground. In a very few minutes the leg " fills" at the seat 
of the accident, and becomes hot and very tender to the touch. 
There can, therefore, be no doubt as to the nature of the mischief, 
and the confusion to which allusion has been made is one of names 
rather than of facts. Treatment can only be directed to a partial 
recovery from this accident, for a horse broken down in the sense 
in which the term is here used can only be used for stud purposes 
or at slow farm work. A patten shoe should at once be put on 
after bleeding at the toe to a copious extent, and then fomenta- 
tions followed by cold lotions should be applied, as directed in the 
last section. As there must necessarily be a deformity of the leg, 
there can be no objection on that score to firing, and when the 
severe inflammation following the accident has subsided this opera- 
tion should be thoroughly performed, so as to afford relief not only 
by the counter irritation which is set up, and which lasts only for 
a time, but by the rigid and unyielding case which it leaves behind 
for a series of years. 

x 



322 THE HORSE. 



STRAINS OF THE HIP JOINT, STIFLE, AND HOCK. 

The hip joint, or round bone, is liable to be strained by 
the bind feet slipping and being stretcbed apart, or by blows 
against tbe side of the stall, when cast, which are not sufficient to 
dislocate the femur, but strain its ligaments severely. The conse« 
quence is an inflammation of the joint, which is evidenced by a 
dropping of one hip in going, the weight being thrown more upon 
the sound side than upon the other. This is especially remarkable 
on first starting, the lameness soon going off in work, but return- 
ing after rest. The case, however, is a rare one, and its descrip- 
tion need not, therefore, occupy much of our space. When it does 
happen, it is very apt to lead to a wasting of the deep muscles of 
the haunch, which nothing but compulsory work will restore to a 
healthy condition. The only treatment necessary in the early 
stage of strain of the hip joint is rest and cooling diet, &c. ; but, 
after six weeks or two months, a gradual return to work is indis- 
pensable to effect a cure. 

Strains op the stifle, independently of blows, are rare ; but 
the latter often are inflicted upon this joint in hunting, leaving 
little evidence externally, so that it is almost always doubtful 
whether the injury is the result of a blow or strain. The symptoms 
are a swelling and tenderness of the joint, which can be ascer- 
tained by a careful examination ; and on trotting the horse, there 
is manifested a difficulty or stiffness in drawing forward the hind 
leg under the belly. The treatment must be by bleeding and 
physicking in the early stage, together with hot fomentations to the 
part, continued every hour until the heat subsides. After a few 
days, if the joint is still painful, a large blister should be applied, 
or, what is still better, a seton should be inserted in the skin 
adjacent. 

The hock itself is liable to strain, independently of the pecu- 
liar accident known as "curb." When it occurs, there is some 
heat of the part, with more or less lameness, and neither spavin, 
thorougbpin, nor curb to account for them. The injury is seldom 
severe, and may be relieved by fomentations for a day or two, 
followed by cold lotions, as presented at page 320, for strain of the 
back sinews. 

CURB. 

The lower part of the posterior surface of the os calcis 
is firmly united to the cuboid and external metatarsal bone by two 
strong ligamentous bands, called the calcaneo-cuboid and calcaneo- 
metatarsal ligaments. The centre of these ligaments is about 
seven or eight inches below the point of the hock, and when a soft 
but elastic swelling suddenly makes its appearance there, it may 



CURB. 328 

with certainty be asserted that a " curb" has been thrown out. The 
accident occurs somewhat suddenly ; but the swelling and inflam- 
mation do not always show themselves until after a night's rest, 
when the part is generally enlarged, hot, and tender. The precise 
extent of the strain is of little consequence ; for whatever its 
nature, the treatment should be sufficiently active to reduce the 
ligaments to their healthy condition. Some horses have naturally the 
head of the external small metatarsal bone unusually large, and 
the hock so formed that there is an angle between the large meta- 
tarsal bone and the tarsus, leaving a prominence, which, however, 
is hard and bony, and not soft and elastic, as is the case with curb. 
Such hocks are generally inclined to throw out curbs; but there 
are many exceptions, and some of the most suspicious-looking 
joints have been known to stand sound for years. Curbs are seldom 
thrown out by very old horses, and usually occur between the com- 
mencement of breaking-in and the seventh or eighth year, though 
they are not unfrequently met with in the younger colt, being occa- 
sioned by his gambols over hilly ground. The treatment should 
at first be studiously confined to a reduction of the inflammation ; 
any attempt to procure absorption till this is effected being inju- 
rious in the extreme. If there is much heat in the part, blood 
may be taken from the thigh vein, the corn should be removed, 
and a dose of physic given as soon as practicable. The curb 
should then be kept wet (by means of a bandage lightly applied) 
with the lotion recommended at page 316 for capped hocks, and 
this should be continued until the inflammation is entirely gone. 
During this treatment, in bad cases, a patten shoe should be kept 
on, so as to keep the hock as straight as possible, and thus take 
the strain off the ligaments which are affected. After the part 
has become cool,, it may be reduced in size, by causing absorption 
to be set up ; which is best effected by the application of mercury 
and iodine (both of which possess that power), in such a shape as 
to cause a blister of the skin. The biniodide of mercury has this 
double advantage, and there is no application known to surgery 
which will act equally well in effecting the absorption of a curb. 
It should be applied in the mode recommended at page 300, and 
again rubbed on at an interval of about a week, for three or four 
times in succession, when it will generally be found that the ab- 
sorption of the unnatural swelling is effected ; but the ligaments 
remain as weak as before, and nothing but exercise (not too severe, 
or it will inflame them again) will strengthen them sufficiently to 
prevent a return. Friction with the hand, aided by a slightly 
stimulating oil (such as neat's-foot and turpentine mixed, or neat's- 
foot and oil of origanum, or, in fact, any stimulating essential oil), 
will tend to strengthen the ligaments, by exciting their vessels to 
throw out additional fibres ; and in course of time a curb may be 



324 THE HORSE. 

considered to be sufficiently restored to render it tolerably safe to 
use the horse again in the same way which originally produced it. 

DISLOCATION. 

By Dislocation is meant the forcible removal of the end of a 
bone from the articulating surface which it naturally occupies. 
In the horse, from the strength of his ligaments, the accident is 
not common ; those that do occur being chiefly in the hip joint, 
and in that between the patella and the end of the femur. 

Dislocation op the hip joint is known by the rigidity of 
the hind leg, which cannot be moved in any direction, and is 
carried by the horse when he is compelled to attempt to alter his 
position. There is a flatness of the haunch below the hip, but 
the crest of the ilium is still there, and by this the accident 
may be diagnosed from fracture of that part. No treatment is of 
the slightest avail, as the part cannot be reduced, and the horse 
is useless except for stud purposes. The accident is not very 
common. 

Dislocation op the patella sometimes becomes habitual, 
occurring repeatedly in the same horse, apparently from a spas- 
modic contraction of the external vastus muscle, which draws the 
patella outwards, and out of the trochlea formed for it in the 
lower head of the femur. When the cramp goes off, the patella 
drops into its place again as soon as the horse moves, and no 
treatment is required. Occasionally, however, the dislocation is 
more complete, and nothing but manual dexterity will replace the 
bone in its proper situation. Great pain and uneasiness are 
expressed, and the operator must encircle the haunch with his 
arms and lay hold of the patella with both hands, while an assist- 
ant drags forward the toe, and thus relaxes the muscles which are 
inserted in it. By forcibly driving the patella into its place it 
may be lifted over the ridge which it has passed, and a snap 
announces the reduction. 

WOUNDS OF JOINTS. 

The knee is the joint most frequently suffering from wound, 
being liable to be cut by a fall upon it, if the ground is rough ; 
and if the accident takes place when the horse is going at a rapid 
pace, the skin, ligaments, and tendons may be worn through by 
friction against the plain surface of a smooth turnpike road. 
Whether the joint itself is injured, or only the skin, the accident 
is called a " broken knee," and for convenience sake it will be 
well to consider both under the present head. 

When A broken knee consists merely in an abrasion of the 
skin, the attention of the groom is solely directed to the restora- 
tion of the hair, which will grow again as well as ever, if the 



WOUNDS OF JOINTS. 325 

bulbs or roots are not injured. These are situated in the internal 
layer of the true skin, and therefore, whenever there is a smooth 
red surface displayed, without any difference in the fcexture of its 
parts, a confident hope may be expressed that there will be no 
blemish. If the skin is penetrated, either the glistening surface 
of the tendons or ligaments is apparent, or there is a soft layer of 
cellular membrane, generally containing a fatty cell or two in the 
middle of the wound of the skin. Even here, by proper treat- 
ment, the injury may be repaired so fully, that the space uncovered 
by hair cannot be recognised by the ordinary observer, and not 
by any one without bending the knee and looking very carefully 
at it. The best treatment is to foment the knee well with warm 
water, so as to remove every particle of grit or dirt ; go on with 
this every hour during the first day, and at night apply a bran 
poultice to the knee, which should be left on till the next morn- 
ing. Then cleanse the wound, and apply a little spermaceti oint- 
ment, or lard without salt, and with this keep the wound pliant 
until it heals, which if slight it will in a few days. If the skin is 
pierced there will generally be a growth above it of red flabby 
granulations, which should be carefully kept down to its own 
level (not beneath it), by the daily use of blue stone, or if neces- 
sary of nitrate of silver. As soon as the wound is perfectly 
healed, if the horse can be spared, the whole front of the knee 
and skin should be dressed with James' blister, which will bring 
off the hair of the adjacent parts, and also encourage the growth 
of that injured by the fall. In about three weeks or a month 
from its application, the leg will pass muster, for there will be no 
difference in the color of the old and new hair as there would 
have been without the blister, and the new will also have come 
on more quickly and perfectly than it otherwise would. 

When the joint itself is opened the case is much more 
serious, and there is a risk not only of a serious blemish, which 
can seldom be avoided, but of a permanent stiffness of the leg, the 
mischief sometimes being sufficient to lead to constitutional fever, 
and the local inflammation going on to the destruction of the joint 
by anchylosis. The treatment should be directed to cleanse and 
then close the joint, the former object being carried out by a 
careful ablution with warm water, continued until there is no 
doubt of all the dirt and grit having been removed. Then, if 
there is only a very small opening in the capsular ligament, it 
may be closed by a careful and light touch of a pointed iron 
heated to a red heat. Generally, however, it is better to apply 
some dry carded cotton to the wound, and a bandage over this, 
leaving all on for four or five days, when it may be removed and 
reapplied. The horse should be bled largely and physicked, taking 
care to prevent all chance of his lying down by racking him up. 
28 



326 THE HORSE. 

He will seldom attempt to do this, on account of the pain occa- 
sioned in bending the knee, but some animals will disregard this 
when tired, and will go down somehow. When the cotton is 
reapplied, if there are granulations above the level of the skin, 
they must be kept down as recommended in the last paragraph, 
and the subsequent treatment by blister may be exactly the same. 
By these means a very extensive wound of the knee may be often 
speedily cured, and the blemish will be comparatively trifling. 

The knee is sometimes punctured by a thorn in hunting, 
causing great pain and lameness. If it can be felt externally, it 
is well to cut down upon it and remove it; but groping in the dark 
with the knife among important tendons in front of the knee is 
not on any account to be attempted. The knee should be well 
fomented, five or six times a day, until the swelling, if there is 
any, subsides, and, in process of time, the thorn will either show 
its base, or it will gradually free itself from its attachments and lie 
beneath the skin, from which position it may be safely extracted 
with the knife. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

DISEASES OF THE THORACIC ORGANS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 

General Remarks — Catarrh — Influenza or Distemper — Bronchitis 
— Chronic Cough — Laryngitis — Roaring, Whistling, Etc. — 
Pneumonia and Congestion of the Lungs — Pleurisy — Pleuro- 
dynia — Phthisis — Broken Wind — Thick Wind— Spasm of the 
Diaphragm — Diseases of the Heart — Diseases of the Blood Ves- 
sels in the Chest and Nose. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

The importance op soundness in the respiratory apparatus 
is so fully recognised, that in common parlance it is put before the 
organs of locomotion, a popular expression being "sound, wind and 
limb." It is true that good wind is useless without legs ; but the 
diseases of the latter are known to be more under control than 
those of the chest, and hence it is, perhaps, that the wind is so 
carefully scrutinized by all purchasers of horses. There is, also, 
much greater difficulty in ascertaining the condition of the lungs 
and their appendages, and the ordinary observer can- only judge 
of them by an absolute trial; while the state of the legs may be 
seen and felt, and that of the feet can be tolerably well ascertained 
by a very short run upon hard ground. So, also, with the acute 
diseases of these parts; while the legs and feet manifest the 



CATARRH. 327 

slightest inflammation going on in them by swelling and heat, the 
air-passages may be undergoing slow but sure destruction, without 
giving out any sign that can be detected by any one but the prac- 
tised veterinarian. In most of the diseases of the chest there is 
disturbance of the breathing, even during a state of rest ; but in 
some of them, as in roaring, for instance, no such evidence is 
afforded, and the disease can only be detected by an examination 
during, or immediately after, a severe gallop. 

CATARRH, OR COLD. 

Catarrh maybe considered under two points of view ; either 
as an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nasal cavities, 
accompanied by slight general fever; or as an ephemeral fever of 
three or four days duration, complicated with this condition of the 
nose. The latter is, perhaps, the more scientific definition, but 
for common purposes it is more convenient to consider it as mainly 
consisting in the most prominent symptom. There is invariably 
some degree of feverishness, sometimes very considerable, at others 
so slight as to be easily passed over. Usually the pulse is accele- 
rated to about forty or fifty, the appetite is impaired, and there is 
often sore throat, with more or less cough. On examining the 
interior of the nostrils, they are more red than natural, at first dry 
and swollen, then bedewed with a watery discharge which soon 
becomes yellow, thick, and, in bad cases, purulent. The eyes are 
generally involved, their conjunctival coat being injected with 
blood, and often some slight weeping takes place, but there is 
always an expression of sleepiness or dulness, partly owing to the 
local condition of the organ, and partly to the general impairment 
of the health. The disease is caused in most instances by a chill, 
either in the stable or out, but sometimes, even in the mildest form 
it appears to be epidemic. The treatment will greatly depend upon 
the severity of the seizure ; usually, a bran-mash containing from 
six drachms to one ounce of powdered nitre in it, at night, for two 
or three consecutive periods, will suffice, together with the abstrac- 
tion of corn, and, if the bowels are confined, a mild dose of physic 
should be given. In more severe cases, when there is cough and 
considerable feverishness, a ball composed of the following ingre- 
dients may be given every night : — 

Take of Nitrate of Potass 2 drachms. 

Tartarized Antimony 1 drachm. 

Powdered Digitalis £ drachm. 

Camphor l\ drachm. 

Linseed meal and boiling water enough to make into a ball. 

If the throat is sore, an embrocation of equal parts of oil, tur- 
pentine, tincture of cautharides, and hartshorn, may be rubbed in 
ni«;ht and morninsr- 



328 THE HORSE. 

Should the disease extend to the bronchial tubes, or substance 
of the lungs, the treatment for bronchitis or pneumonia must be 
adopted. 

The stable should be kept cool, taking care to make up for the 
difference in temperature by putting on an extra rug ; water should 
be allowed ad libitum, and no corn should be given. 

Sometimes the discharge becomes chronic, and it is then known 
by the name ozena. 

INFLUENZA, OR DISTEMPER.* 

This may be considered to be an epidemic catarrh, but the 
symptoms are generally more severe and leave greater prostration 
of strength behind them. They also require more careful treat- 
ment, which must be specially adapted to the attack, for remedies 
which will arrest the disease in one year will totally fail the next 
time that the epidemic prevails. The fever of late years has had 
a tendency to put on the typhoid type, and bleeding, which for- 
merly was often beneficial, is now completely forbidden. The symp- 
toms are at first similar to those already described as pertaining to 
common catarrh, but after a few days the accompanying fever is 
more severe than usual, and does not abate at the customary period. 
The appetite is altogether lost, and the appearance of the patient 
is characteristic of severe disease rather than of a trifling cold. It 
is, however, chiefly from the fact that a number of horses are seized 
with similar symptoms, either at the same time or rapidly follow- 
ing one another, that the disease is recognised. It usually prevails 
in the spring of the year, or in a wet and unhealthy autumn. 
Sometimes almost every case runs on to pneumonia, at others the 
bronchial mucous membrane alone is attacked ; but in all there is 
extreme debility in proportion to the apparent nature of the disease. 
The ordinary appearances exhibited in recent epidemics have been 
as follows : — The first thing observed is a general slight shivering, 
accompanied by a staring coat. The pulse is weak, and slightly 
accelerated, but not to any great extent ; the mouth feels hot ; the 
eyes and the nostrils are red; the belly is tucked up; there is no 
appetite; cough, to a varying extent, begins to show itself; and 
there is generally a heaving of the flanks. The legs and feet are 
not cold as in pneumonia, but beyond this they afford no positive 
signs. The cellular membrane around the eyes, and of the legs, 
generally swells about the second day, and often the head and 
limbs become quite shapeless from this cause. In the early stage 
the bowels are often relaxed, but afterwards they are as frequently 
confined. Sore throat is a very common complication, but it is not 
by any means an invariable attendant on influenza. It is, however, 

* Choking Distempek — so called — -will be found treated of under the 
name of Typhoid Fever in note to chapter on fevers. — Editor. 



INFLUENZA— BRONCHITIS. 329 

somewhat difficult to ascertain its existence, as in any case there 
is no appetite for food. The treatment should be conducted on the 
principle of husbanding the strength, and, unless urgent symptoms 
of inflammation show themselves, the less that is done the better. 
If the trachea or larynx is involved only slightly, counter irrita- 
tion, by means of a liquid blister, must be tried, without resorting 
to strong internal medicines ; but if serious mischief ensues, the 
case must, to a certain extent, be treated as it would be when 
coming on without the complication of influenza, always taking 
care to avoid bleeding, and merely acting on the bowels by gentle 
aperients, and on the skin and kidneys by the mildest diaphoretic and 
diuretic. The following is the ordinary plan of treatment adopted : 

Take of Spirit of Nitric Ether 1 ounce. 

Laudanum 4 drachms. 

Nitrate of Potass 3 drachms. 

Water 1 pint. 

Mix, and give as a drench night and morning. 

By constantly offering to the horse thin gruel (taking care that 
it does not become sour), and no plain water, sufficient nourish- 
ment may be given, as his thirst will induce him to drink. 

During the stage of convalescence the greatest care must be 
taken. At first, as soon as the cough has somewhat subsided, a 
mild stomachic ball will be desirable, such as 

Take of Extract of Gentian 6 drachms. 

Powdered Ginger 2 drachms. Mix. 

Afterwards, if the case goes on favorably, and the appetite returns, 
the restoration may be left to nature, giving the horse by degrees 
his usual allowance of corn, and adding to his morning and evening 
feed one drachm of sulphate of iron in fine powder. It must not be 
attempted to give this until the appetite is pretty keen, or the horse 
will be disgusted, and will probably refuse his corn altogether. 

Should typhoid symptoms be clearly established, the case must 
be treated according to the directions hereafter laid down for 
typhus fever. 

BRONCHITIS. 

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining 
the bronchi, and almost invariably extending to these parts through 
the trachea, from the larynx and nasal passages, which are pri- 
marily affected as in ordinary cold. The membrane in the early 
stage becomes filled with blood, and as a consequence the diameter 
of the tubes is diminished, attended by some difficulty and in- 
creased rapidity of breathing. After a time a frothy mucus is 
poured out from it, and this still further interferes with respira- 
tion, and necessitates a constant cough to get rid of it. These 
symptoms are always present, but they will vary greatly in inten 
28* 



330 THE HOUSE. 

sity, and in the rapidity with which they progress, from which cir- 
cumstances bronchitis is said to be acute or chronic, as the case 
may be. In the acute form there are also several variations, and 
veterinary writers are in the habit of again subdividing it into 
acute and sub-acute, but the two leading divisions are sufficient 
for all practical purposes. It begins with the usual premonitory 
appearances of a severe cold, accompanied by a staring coat, and 
entire loss of appetite. The breathing is somewhat quicker than 
natural, and the pulse is raised to sixty or seventy. The legs re- 
main of the usual temperature, and there is a hard dry cough, the 
lining membrane of the nostrils being intensely red, and in severe 
cases dry and swollen. On auscultation there is a dry rattling 
sound, very different from the crepitation of pneumonia, and as 
soon as mucus is secreted, succeeded by gurgling, and soap-bubble 
sounds, easily distinguished when once heard. If the attack goes 
on favorably, the cough becomes loose, and there is a free dis- 
charge of mucus, both from the lungs, as evidenced from the 
nature of the cough, and from the nostrils, as shown by the run- 
ning from them. On the other hand, the prognosis is unfavorable 
when the breathing is very laborious, with the legs extended, and 
the cough constant and ineffectual in affording relief. Should no 
relief be afforded, death takes place a week or ten days after the 
onset of the disease, from suffocation. The treatment should de- 
pend greatly upon the urgency of the inflammation, which only an 
experienced eye can judge of. If slight, nitre and tartar emetic 
internally, and a blister (to one or both sides, according to the 
extent of bronchi involved), will suffice, but in very severe cases 
blood must be taken at the onset, or it will be impossible to control 
the inflammation. Bleeding should be avoided if it is judged 
prudent to do so, for of late years the type of diseases has changed 
so much in the horse, that he is found to bear loss of blood badly. 
Nevertheless, it is not wise to lay down the rule that it is never 
desirable. The bowels must be acted on by the ordinary physic 
ball, resorting to raking and clysters, if the time cannot be afforded 
for the usual laxative preparation. For the special control of the 
morbid state of the membrane the following ball will be found 
advantageous : — 

Take of Digitalis h drachm. 

Calomel \ drachm. 

Tartar Emetic . . . ... . . . 60 to 80 grains. 

Nitre 2 drachms. 

Mix with treacle, and give twice a day. 

Should the disease continue after the blister is healed, a large seton 
may be put in one or both sides with advantage. 

Chronic bronchitis seldom exists except as a sequel to the 
acute form, and after adopting the balls recommended for that 



CHRONIC COUGH. 331 

state, it may be treated by attention to tbe general health, a seton 
in the side, and the exhibition of an expoctorant ball twice a day, 
composed of the following materials : — 

Take of Gum Ammoniacum £ ounce. 

Powdered Squill 1 drachm. 

Castile Soap • . . . 2 drachms. 

Mix and make into a hall. 

CHRONIC COUGH. 

By this term is understood a cough that comes on without 
any fever or evidences of the horse having taken cold. It differs 
in this respect from chronic bronchitis, which generally supervenes 
upon the acute form, and is always attended in the early stage by 
feverishness. It appears probable that chronic cough is dependent 
upon an unnatural stimulus to the mucous membrane, for it almost 
always makes its appearance when much corn is given without due 
preparation, and ceases on a return to greon food. It is, therefore, 
very commonly termed a stomach cough. The symptoms are all 
summed up in the presence of a dry cough, which is seldom mani- 
fested while in the stable, but comes on whenever the breathing is 
hastened by any pace beyond a walk. Two or three coughs are 
then given, and the horse perhaps is able to go on with his work, 
but after resting for a few minutes, and again starting, it comes on 
again, and annoys the rider or driver by its tantalizing promise of 
disappearance followed by disappointment. Very often this kind 
of cough is caused by the irritation of worms, but any kind of dis- 
order of the digestive organs appears to have the power of pro- 
ducing it. The usual treatment for chronic bronchitis seems here 
to be quite powerless, and the only plan of proceeding likely to be 
attended with success, is to look for the cause of the irritation, and 
remove it. Sometimes this will be found in a hot stable, the horse 
having previously been accustomed to a cool one. Here the altera- 
tion of the temperature by ten or fifteen degrees will in a few days 
effect a cure, and nothing else is required. Again, it may be that 
the corn has been overdone, in which case a gentle dose of physic, 
followed by a diminished allowance of corn, and a bran-mash twice 
a week, will be successful. If the stomach is much disordered, 
green food will be the best stimulus to a healthy condition, or in 
its absence a few warm cordial balls may be tried. The existence 
of worms should be ascertained in doubtful cases, and if they are 
present, the proper remedies must be given for their removal. 
Linseed oil and spirit of turpentine, which are both excellent worm 
remedies, arc highly recommended in chronic cough, and whether 
or not their good effect is due to their antagonism to worms, thej 
may be regarded as specially useful. 

A very successful combination is the following mixture : — 



332 THE HORSE. 

Take of Spirit of Turpentine .... 2 ounces. 

Mucilage of Acacia .... 6 ounces. 

Gum Ammoniacum . . . . £ ounce. 

Laudanum 4 ounces. 

Water 2 quart?. 

Mix, and give half-a-pint as a drench every night : the bottle must be 
well shaken before pouring out the dose. 

LARYNGITIS, ROARING, WHISTLING, &c. 

One of the most common diseases among well-bred horses of 
the present day, is the existence of some mechanical impediment 
to the passage of the air into the lungs, causing the animal to 
" make a noise." The exact nature of the sound has little or no 
practical bearing on the cause that produces it ; that is to say, it 
cannot be predicated that roaring is produced by laryngitis ; nor 
that whistling is the result of a palsy of some particular muscle, 
but undoubtedly it may safely be asserted that all lesions of the 
larynx, by which the shape and area of its opening (rima glottidis) 
are altered and diminished, are sure to have a prejudicial effect 
upon the wind, and either to produce roaring, whistling, wheezing, 
or trumpeting, but which would result it might be difficult to say, 
although the precise condition of the larynx were known, which it 
cannot be during life. Until recently veterinary surgeons were 
puzzled by often finding on examination of a roarer's larynx after 
death no visible organic change in the opening, and many were led 
to imagine that this part could not be the seat of the disease. On 
a careful dissection, however, it is found that a muscle or muscles 
whose office it is to dilate the larynx is wasted and flabby (crico- 
arytenoideus lateralis and thyro-arytenoideus). The other muscles 
are perhaps equally atrophied, but as their office is to close the 
opening, their defects are not equally injurious, and at all events 
are not shown by producing an unnatural noise. The cause of this 
wasting is to be looked for in pressure upon the nerve which sup- 
plies these muscles, and which passes through an opening in the 
posterior ala of the thyroid cartilage, so that whatever causes a dis- 
placement of that part will mechanically affect the nerve. For 
these several reasons it will be necessary to examine first of all into 
the several kinds of inflammation, &c, to which the larynx is sub- 
ject, and then to investigate as far as we may, the nature, mode 
of detection, and treatment of the several conditions known to 
horsemen by the names of roaring, whistling, &c, which are only 
symptoms of one or other of the diseases to which allusion will 
presently be made. 

By acute laryngitis is meant a more than ordinary inflam- 
mation of the larynx, and not that slightly morbid condition in 
which the mucous membrane of that organ is always involved in 
" the passage of a cold into the chest." In the latter state the ear 



CHRONIC LARYNGITIS. 333 

detects no unusual sound, and indeed there is plenty of room for 
the air to pass. But in true laryngitis, on placing the ear near the 
throat, a harsh rasping sound is heard, which is sufficient at once 
to show the nature and urgency of the symptoms. The mucous 
membrane is swollen, and tinged with blood ; the rima glottidis is 
almost closed, and the air in passing through it produces the sound 
above described, which, however, is sometimes replaced by a stridu- 
lus or hissing one. In conjunction with this well-marked symp- 
tom there is always a hoarse cough of a peculiar character, and 
some considerable fever, with frequent respiration, and a hard, wiry 
pulse of seventy to eighty. The treatment must be of the most 
active kind, for not only is life threatened, but even if a fatal result 
does not take place, there is great danger of permanent organic 
mischief to the delicate apparatus of the larynx, generally from the 
effusion of lymph into the submucous cellular membrane. A full 
bleeding should at once be practised, and repeated at the end of 
twelve hours if there is no relief afforded and the pulse still con- 
tinues hard. The hair should be cut off the throat, and the tinc- 
ture of cantharides brushed on in a pure state until a blister arises, 
when the part may be constantly well fomented, to encourage the 
discharge. Large doses of tartar emetic, calomel, and digitalis, 
must also be given, but their amount and frequency should be left 
to an experienced veterinarian, the preliminary bleeding and blis- 
tering being done in his absence to save time. It is a case in 
which medicine must be pushed as far as can be done with safety, 
and this cannot well be left to any one who is not well acquainted 
with its effects, and with the powers of the animal economy. Gruel 
is the only food allowed during the acute stage, and there is seldom 
time to have recourse to aperient physic until the urgent symp- 
toms are abated, when an ordinary dose may be given. During 
convalescence the greatest care must be taken to prevent a re- 
lapse, by avoiding all excitement either by stimulating food or fast 
exercise. 

Chronic laryngitis may occur as the result of the acute form 
above described, or it may come on gradually, without any violent 
inflammation preceding it. In either case the symptoms are simi- 
lar 'in their nature to those met with in the acute form, but less in 
degree. The noise made is not nearly so harsh, and can often 
hardly be heard on the most careful examination. The peculiai 
harsh, grating cough is, however, always present, and by it the 
nature of the case may generally be easily made out. The disease 
often accompanies strangles, although in nine cases out of ten it 
is overlooked by the careless attendant. Very commonly, how- 
ever, it makes its ravages in so insidious a manner that no suspi- 
cion is felt of its presence, until the horse begins to make a noise, 
though he must in all probability have shown by the cough peculiar 



334 THE HORSE. 

to the complaint, that it has been working its way for some weeks 
at least. Such cases chiefly occur in the training stable, and are 
due, according to my belief, to the enormous quantity of oats 
which it is now the fashion to give to colts from the earliest period 
of their lives, increased to seven and eight feeds a day during the 
second year. Continued spirit-drinking has precisely the same 
effect upon the human being, and the harsh stridulous tough of 
the confirmed drunkard marks the existence of ulceration of the 
larynx, in the only way which he will allow it to be displayed, for 
he is not, like the horse, made to exert his powers of running, 
whether his wind is good or bad. There is, of course, a consider- 
able difference between the two diseases, but there is sufficient 
analogy between them to explain why the stimulus of over-corning 
should affect the larynx in preference to any other part. It would 
be difficult to show the connection between the two in any other 
way, beyond the simple fact that roaring has become general in an 
exact proportion to the prevalence of the present fashion of feed- 
ing. The advocates of the plan will say that though the two have 
come in together, yet it is merely a coincidence, and not a conse- 
quence the one of the other ; but if it can be shown that in man 
a similar cause produces a similar effect, the argument is strength- 
ened to such a degree as to be almost unanswerable. But what- 
ever may be the cause there can be no doubt that the treatment is 
most troublesome, and often baffles the skill of the most accom- 
plished veterinarian. Blistering is not so useful as counter-irrita- 
tion by a seton, which must be inserted in the loose skin beneath 
the jaw, as close as possible to the larynx. This alone will do 
much towards the cure, but no pains must be spared to assist its 
action by a cooling regimen, consisting of bran mashes, and if in 
the spring or summer, green food, or in the winter, carrots. Corn 
must be entirely forbidden, and the kidneys should be encouraged 
to act freely by two or three drachms of nitre given in the mash 
twice a day. When the case is very intractable, the nitrate of 
silver may be applied to the part itself by means of a sponge fast- 
ened to a piece of flexible cane or whalebone. The mouth should 
then be kept open with the ordinary balling iron, and the sponge 
rapidly passed to the situation of the top of the larynx, and held 
there for a second, and then withdrawn. I have succeeded in cur- 
ing two obstinate cases of chronic laryngitis by this plan, but some 
little risk is incurred, as in one of them imminent symptoms of 
suffocation presented themselves, but soon went off. I should not, 
therefore, recommend the application excepting in cases where all 
other means have failed, and in which there is reason to believe 
that the patient is likely to become a permanent roarer or whistler. 
The nitrate of silver has great power in producing resolution of 
inflammation in mucous surfaces, and in this disease little or 



ROARING. 335 

nothing can be effected by general measures. The solution should 
be from ten to fifteen grains in the ounce of distilled water. 

Roaring is the bugbear of the purchaser at the hammer, and 
not without good reason. The most experienced veterinarian or 
dealer will often fail to ascertain its existence, in spite of all the 
artifices he may call into play. Not the slightest sound is heard 
during a state of quiescence, or even when the horse is trotted or 
galloped for the short distance which " the ride" will afford. The 
blow on the side given with due artistic effect elicits no grunt, and 
yet the animal is a confirmed roarer, and not worth a shilling per- 
haps for the purpose to which he is intended to be devoted. On 
the other hand, many a sound horse is condemned as a roarer for 
giving out the obnoxious grunt; and though there is no doubt 
that this sign may be relied on in a great many cases, yet it can- 
not be accepted as either negatively or positively a certain proof. 
The only real trial is the noiseless gallop on turf or plough, when 
the ear can detect the slightest sound, and can distinguish its ex- 
act nature, and the precise spot from which it proceeds. Many a 
horse will, when he is excited, make a harsh noise in his breathing, 
accompanied by a kind of " gluck," proceeding from a spasmodic 
flapping of the velum palati; but on galloping him all this goes 
off, and he may probably exhibit excellent wind Such cases I 
have many times known, and they would be condemned as unsound 
by those who have had little experience, or are content with a 
careless and inefficient trial. Stallions are particularly prone to 
make this kind of noise, and it is extremely difficult to ascertain 
their soundness in this respect by any means which can be safely 
resorted to. The causes of roaring are of three kinds : 1st, In- 
flammation, which has left a thickening or ulceration of the mucous 
membrane, or a fungous growth from it; 2d, Paralysis of the mus- 
cles ; and 3d, An alteration of the shape of the cartilages of the 
larynx, produced by tight reining. 

In roaring produced by an vlcerated or thickened condition of 
the mucous membrane, or by a fungous growth, the sound elicited 
is always the same in proportion to the rapidity of respiration. 
None of the ordinary expedients by which the breath is introduced 
in a modified stream (such as a full meal, or pressure on the nos- 
trils or windpipe), will be of much avail, and the horse roars 
sturdily whenever his pace is sufficiently accelerated. If a horse 
so affected can be made to grunt by the blow on the side, the 
sound will always indicate the disease, for it will be harsh and 
rough, and not the natural grunt of the animal. It is usually 
supposed that ne treatment can be of the slightest avail here; but 
I believe that sometimes the continued application of nitrate of 
silver, as recommended at page 334, would be followed by a cer- 
tain amount of amelioration, the extent of which it is impossible 



336 THE HORSE. 

to guess at without a trial. Iu any case, when the animal is ren- 
dered almost worthless hy disease, it is fair to try experiments 
which are neither expensive nor cruel ; and from the effect of the 
remedy in those cases in which it has been used, I am led to ex- 
pect that it may prove beneficial in those of longer standing. 
Setons, blisters, and embrocations are all useless, as has been proved 
in numberless cases; and beyond the palliation which can be 
afforded by employing the horse only at such a pace as his state 
will allow, nothing else can be suggested. In some cases the 
roarer will be able to do ordinary harness work, which, however, 
in hot weather, will try him severely ; in others he may be so 
slightly affected as to be fit to hunt in a country where, from its 
nature, the pace is not very severe ; but by confirmed roarers the 
slow work of the cart is all that can be performed without cruelty. 
Where paralysis of the muscles that open the rima glottidis is 
the seat of the roaring, no plan has yet been suggested which is 
of the slightest avail. In the first place, it is extremely difficult, 
and indeed almost impossible, to diagnose the affection, and I know 
of no means by which paralysis can be ascertained to exist during 
life. Hence, although it is barely possible that by the use of 
strychnine the nerve might be stimulated into a restoration of ita 
functions, yet as the case cannot be ascertained, it is scarcely wise 
to give this powerful drug in the hope that it may by chance hit 
the right nail on the head. This paralytic condition seems chiefly 
to attack carriage horses, and probably arises from the pressure 
made by the over-curved larynx upon the laryngeal nerve as it 
passes through the opening in the thyroid cartilage. Many vete- 
rinary writers have looked to the recurrent branch of the par 
vagum to explain the loss of power, but I believe it is rather to 
the laryngeal nerve that the mischief is due. It must be remem- 
bered that carriage-horses are not only reined up for hours while 
doing their daily work out of doors, but they are also often placed 
in the same position, or even a more constrained one, by the coach- 
man in the stable, in order to improve their necks. One horse of 
his pair perhaps has naturally a head better set on than the other, 
and he wishes to make nature bend to his wishes by compelling 
the other to do that which the shape of his jaw forbids without a 
sacrifice. The mouthing tackle is put on in the stable with this 
view, and the poor horse is " kept on the bit" for three or four 
hours early in the morning, during which time his larynx is pressed 
between his narrow jaws into a most unnatural shape. The con- 
sequence is either that the nerve is pressed upon, and the muscles 
to which it is supplied are paralyzed, as in the condition which we 
are now considering, or the cartilages are permanently disfigured, 
which is the subject of the next paragraph. When the paralysis 



ROARING. 331 

id established, I believe no means but the internal use o: strych- 
nine are at all likely to be beneficial. 

An alteration in the shape of the cartilages, so as to permanently 
change their form, is, I believe, the least common of all the causes 
of roaring. Pressure for a very long time will be required to 
effect this, and far more than suffices to paralyze the nerve. Cases, 
however, are recorded, and the parts have been preserved, so that 
there can be no doubt of their occasional occurrence. No treat- 
ment can be of the slightest service. 

Although roaring, in all its varieties, may be said to be generally 
incurable, yet it may be greatly palliated by general attention to 
the state of the lungs and stomach, by proper food, and by the 
use, while the horse is at work, of a special contrivance, of a 
most ingenious nature, published by Mr. Reeve, of Camberwell, 
in the Veterinarian for 1858, but said to have been in use for 
many years among the London omnibus and cab men. At all 
events, Mr. Reeve deserves the credit of having laid the matter 
before the profession, and of explaining the true principle upon 
which it acts. He says, in his paper on the subject : " I thought 
it possible to so modify the atmospheric supply to the lungs, that, 
during exercise, the volume of air, when it arrived at the glottis, 
should not exceed that which passed through its opening when the 
horse was tranquil, and which (from the fact of the sound being 
absent) does not at that time produce roaring. A strap was accord- 
ingly made to pass around the nose of the horse, just over the 
region of the false nostrils, and buckle beneath the lower jaw. 
To the inner surface of this strap, and immediately over the false 
nostril on each side, was fixed a body resembling in shape the half 
of a hen's egg, cut longitudinally. When applied, these bodies 
pressed upon the triangular spaces formed by the apex of the nasal 
bones and upper jaw, thus closing the false nostrils, and partly 
diminishing the channel of the true ones. The result wns highly 
gratifying ; for the patient, which previously could not travel with- 
out stopping every minute to take breath, now travelled, to all 
appearance, without inconvenience or noise. At first, the strap 
seemed slightly to annoy the horse ; and whenever it became dis- 
placed, the roaring would again commence. A slight modification, 
however, overcame every difficulty : the strap, instead of being 
buckled around and under the jaw, was fastened on each side of 
the bit ; and, to prevent its descent, another was carried from its 
centre, and fastened to the front of the harness-bridle." Mr. 
Reeve asserts that the effect was all he could have wished, and 
that the horse on which he tried the plan, " which previously had 
been entirely useless, now performs his work in a heavy brougham, 
and gives great satisfaction. The roaring is stopped, and, with 
the usual speed, there appears no impediment to respiration." 
29 Y 



338 IHE HORSE. 

He conclude; : " I have paid particular attention to this case, and 
am inclined to think, that when by the compression we have neu- 
tralized the action of the false nostrils, the object is effected with- 
out the necessity of further narrowing the nasal passage." 

Few people would care to drive a roarer, if they could help it, 
even with the aid of the nasal compress ; but if necessity compels 
such a proceeding, it is well to know how the poor animal may be 
used with least annoyance to himself and his master. 

Highblowing is a perfectly healthy and natural habit, and 
cannot be confounded with roaring by any experienced horseman. 
It is solely confined to the nostrils ; and the noise is not produced 
in the slightest degree during inspiration, but solely during the 
expulsion of the air, which is more forcible and rapid than usual, 
and accompanied by a vibratory movement of the nostrils, which 
is the seat of the noise. Roaring, on the contrary, continues dur- 
ing inspiration, as well as expiration ; and by this simple test the 
two may readily be distinguished. Most highblowers have par- 
ticularly good wind, of which the celebrated Eclipse is an exam- 
ple ; for there is no doubt that he was addicted to the habit. 

Whistling (and piping, which is very similar to it), are pro- 
duced by the same causes as roaring, in an exaggerated condition. 
Thus, a roarer often becomes a whistler as the rima glottidis is 
more and more closed by disease ; on the other hand, the whistler 
is never converted into a roarer. The noise made is seldom a 
decidedly shrill whistle, but it has more resemblance to that sound 
than to roaring, and the name may well be retained as descriptive 
of it. Whistlers are always in such a state of confirmed disease, 
that treatment is out of the question — indeed, they can only be 
put to the very slowest kind of work. 

Wheezing is indicative of a contracted condition of the bron- 
chial tubes, which is sometimes of a spasmodic nature, and at 
others is only brought on during occasional attacks after exposure 
to cold. The treatment should be that recommended for chronic 
bronchitis, which is the nature of the disease producing these 
symptoms. 

Trumpeting is not very well defined by veterinary writers, and 
I confess that I have never heard any horse make a noise which 
could be compared to the trumpet, or to the note of the elephant 
so called. 

The question relating to the hereditary nature of roar- 
ing is one which demands the most careful examination before a 
reliable answer can be given to it. It would be necessary to select 
at random a number of roaring sires and dams, and compare their 
stock with that of an equal proportion of sound animals, which 
would be a Herculean task, beyond the power of any private indi- 
vidual. Nothirg short of this could possibly settle the dispute; 



PNEUMONIA. 339 

but, as far as opinion goes, it may be assumed that there are strong 
authorities against the hereditary nature of the diseases which pro- 
duce roaring. That it is often the result of ordinary inflamma- 
tion, which in itself can scarcely be considered hereditary, is plain 
enough ; and that it is also produced by mismanagement in tight 
reining is also admitted, which latter kind can scarcely be supposed 
to be handed down from sire tc son; but that it is safer, when 
practicable, to avoid parents with any disease whatever, is patent 
to all. 

PNEUMONIA AND CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS * 

The theoretical definition op pneumonia is that it con- 
sists of inflammation of the parenchyma of the lungs, independently 
both of the mucous lining to the air passages, and of the serous 
covering of the whole mass. The mucous membrane ceases ab- 
ruptly at the terminations of the bronchial subdivisions, and 
consequently the air-cells are not lined with a continuation from 
it. Hence there is an extensive cellulo-fibrous area, which may 
be the subject of inflammation, without implicating the mucous 
surface. Until within the last fifteen or twenty years, it was com- 
monly supposed that the air-cells were all lined by mucous mem- 
brane, and that the parenchyma was confined to an almost infini- 
tesimally thin structure, filling up [its interstices ; but the microscope 
has revealed the true structure of the lungs, and has shown that 
there is a well-founded distinction between bronchitis and pneu- 
monia, upon the ground of anatomy, as well as observation. Still, 
it cannot be denied that the one seldom exists to any great extent, 
or for any long period, without involving the adjacent tissue ; and 
broncho-pneumonia, as well as pleuro-pneumonia, are as common 
as the pure disease. 

Pneumonia, or peripneumony, must be examined, with a 
view, first, to its intensity, whether acute or sub-acute ; and 
secondly, as to its effects, which may be of little consequence, or 
they may be so serious as to completely destroy the subsequent 
usefulness of the patient. It is not, therefore, alone necessary to 
provide against death by the treatment adopted, but due care must 
also be taken that the tissue of the lungs is not disorganized by a 
deposition of lymph, or of matter, so as to lead, in the one case, to 
a consolidation of the air-cells, and, in the other, to the formation 

* All diseases of the chest and lungs, among farmers and others, are 
classed under the general head of Lung Fever. Whether the lungs be inflamed 
or congested, tincture of aconite is the surest remedy, and is in fact the 
most successful sedative in all diseases of the chest or lungs. Give 20 drops 
every four hours, until four or five doses have been given, allowing plenty of 
cold water and pure air. This last (pure air) is very important, and should 
not be overlooked. — Editor. 



340 THE HORSE. 

of a largt abcess, and consequent destruction of substance. The 
former is a very common sequel of pneumonia ; and probably there 
are few attacks of it without being followed by a greater or less 
degree of hepatization, by which term the deposit of lymph is 
known, from its causing the lungs to assume the texture of liver 
(ijnap). In very severe cases, gangrene of the lungs is induced ; 
but as death almost always speedily follows this condition, it is not 
necessary to consider it, excepting as bearing upon the fatal result. 

The cause of pneumonia may be over-exertion, as in the hunting- 
field, especially in an unprepared horse ; or it may come on as a 
primary disease after exposure to cold; or it may follow upon 
bronchitis when neglected and allowed to run on without check. 
In the two first cases it appears to be produced by the great con- 
gestion of blood which takes place in the fine network of vessels of 
which the lungs are in great part composed. The blood in the 
one case is collected by the increased necessity for its aeration with 
a failing circulation, as in over-exhaustion, or in the other it is 
forced inwards upon the vital organs by the chill which the skin 
has received. The capillaries are then roused to act beyond their 
strength, and an inflammatory condition is established as a repara- 
tory effort of nature, which may possibly stop short as soon as the 
object is accomplished, but more frequently goes on beyond this, 
and an attack of pneumonia sets in with more or less intensity, 
according to circumstances. For these reasons, when the lungs 
are evidently congested, no pains should be spared to relieve them 
by causing the skin to act, before the aid of nature is invoked, 
since it can never be certain that she will stop short at the proper 
point. 

Congestion op the lungs is too often neglected and allowed 
to go on to inflammation. Veterinary surgeons, indeed, are sel- 
dom called in before this stage has run its course and inflammation 
is established. It is true that every hunting man endeavors to 
ascertain all the particulars relating to it, because he is constantly 
in fear of having to treat it, and he would gladly benefit by the 
advice and experience of those more competent to treat it than 
himself. But the great mass of horsemasters are wholly ignorant 
of its action, and I shall therefore endeavor to lay down instruc* 
tions which may be beneficial to those who are so unlucky as to 
have a horse with congested lungs, either caused by over-exertion 
or by a chill, or by a combination of the two, as most frequently 
happens. 

When a fat " dealer's horse," that is, one made up for sale and 
not for use, is ridden in a sharp burst across country, his lungs are 
most unfortunately tried, for he is not only loaded with blood con- 
taining an excess of stimulating materials (or in a state of plethora, 
as it is called), but his heart and blood-vessels are not prepared by 



PNEUMOKIA. 341 

previous exercise to carry on the circulation when unusual demands 
upon them are made. The consequence is that, as soon as he has 
gone half a dozen miles, he not only tires, but, if pressed, his gal- 
lant spirit carries him on until the blood collects and stagnates in 
his lungs, from a defect in the circulating apparatus, and he be- 
comes absolutely choked from a want of that decarbonization which 
is necessary to his very existence. Air is taken freely into his 
lungs, but the circulation almost ceases in them, and in spite of 
his hurried breathing, as shown by his panting sides, he is almost 
as completely suffocated as if a cord was tied round his neck. On 
examining his eyes and nostrils they are seen to be turgid and 
purple, the vessels being filled with carbonized blood, while the 
heart beats rapidly but feebly, and the countenance is expressive 
of anxiety and distress. In this state many a horseman finds his 
steed every winter, and a pretty dilemma he is in. The question 
of treatment is a serious one, even to the most experienced in such 
matters, but one thing is quite clear, that the more urgent the 
case the more danger there is in having recourse to the lancet. 
Bleeding to the extent of a few pounds will sometimes relieve a 
trifling case of exhaustion, but in a really severe one it will take 
away the only chance which remains. The best plan is to give the 
animal plenty of air, turn his head to the wind, and if any kind 
of fermented liquor can be obtained, give him a little at once. 
Neat spirits are apt to cause increased distress from spasm of the 
larynx, but it is even better to risk this than to let the exhaustion 
continue. If, therefore, the horse is incapable of walking to the 
nearest farm-house or inn, the better plan is to leave him with a 
light covering on him of some kind, and at once proceed to pro- 
cure a quart of ale or wine, or spirits and water, whichever can be 
obtained the most easily. One or other of these, slightly warmed 
and spiced, if possible, should be poured down his throat, which 
can readily be done, as he has no power to resist, and then in a 
few minutes he may generally be induced to move quietly on to- 
wards the nearest stable. Here he must remain all night if the 
attack is a bad one, or if he recovers soon he may be walked 
quietly home. When he reaches his stable he may be treated 
according to the directions given at page 188, and in the evening 
or the next morning early, if the pulse rises and is hard and jerk- 
ing, he may be bled with advantage, but rarely should this be done 
for some hours after the first attack. Congestion is essentially 
produced by debility, and although an abstraction of blood relieves 
the vessels of a part of their load, it increases their weakness in 
a still greater degree, and they are less able to do their work, 
diminished though it may be, than they were before. Hundreds 
of over-worked horses have been killed by the abuse of the lincet 
29* 



342 THE HORSE. 

in the hunting-field, but the principle on which their treatment 
should be conducted is better understood now than formerly. 

When congestion shows itself as the result of a chill, the 
following symptoms are displayed : — First and foremost there is 
rapid and laborious breathing, the horse standing with his legs 
wide apart, his head thrust straight forward, and his flanks heav- 
ing. The skin is generally dry, but if there is any sweat it is a 
cold one. The legs are icy cold, and also the ears. The whites of 
the eyes and lining of the nostrils are of a purplish hue, but not 
very deep in colour. The pulse is slightly accelerated (from forty 
to fifty), but not hard and incompressible; and lastly, the attack 
is of recent duration. These signs, however, are not to be fully 
relied on as marking congestion rather than inflammation, without 
having recourse to an examination of the lungs by means of the 
ear. Placing it against the side of the chest, in inflammation 
there would be certain marked sounds, presently to be described, 
whilst in the state we are now considering they are wholly absent, 
and all that is heard is the usual respiratory murmur slightly 
increased in intensity. It is of the utmost importance to make 
out exactly the nature of the case, for the treatment should be 
very different in congestion and inflammation. If in the former 
condition the blood can only be drawn into the skin, relief is at 
once afforded and all danger is at an end; but in the latter, 
though some slight advantage would be gained, the progress of 
the disease would not be materially checked. To produce this 
determination of blood to the skin without loss of time, is some- 
times very difficult; but by the application of hot water and 
blankets it may generally be accomplished. Two men, supplied 
with a tub of very hot water and plenty of clothing, should be 
rapid in their movements, and proceed as follows : — Have an 
assistant ready to strip the patient when ordered, then, dipping 
a blanket in the water, it is taken out and partially wrung, leaving 
as much water in its meshes as it can hold without dropping ; as 
soon as it is cool enough for the human hand to bear its pressure 
it should be gently, but quickly, laid upon the horse's back, and 
the rug, which has just come off, while still warm, placed over 
it, with two or three more over all, the number depending upon 
the temperature of the air. Another smaller rug may in the same 
way be Wetted and applied to the neck, covering it with two or 
three hoods, but taking care to avoid pressure upon the windpipe. 
The legs also should be wrapped in flannel bandages, made as hot 
as possible before the fire, but dry. In the course of half an hour, 
if the skin of the parts uncovered does not become warm, and 
show evidences of sw3ating coming on, another rug must be 
dipped in the same vay, and substituted quickly for the first. 



PNEUMONIA. 343 

Usually, however, the desired effect is produced within twenty 
minutes, and then great care and some little tact are required to 
manage the operation. If the sweating is allowed to go on 
beyond a certain point exhaustion is produced, attended by almost 
as much danger as inflammation ; while on the other hand, in 
attempting to moderate the action of the skin, risk is incurred of a 
chill, and thus upsetting all the benefit which might otherwise 
have been derived. But by throwing open the doors to the 
external air, which may freely be admitted as soon as the skin 
acts, and by reducing the number of additional rugs, the amount 
of sweat given off may be kept within due bounds, and in the 
course of two or three hours the previously wetted rug or blanket 
may be removed, and a dry, warm one substituted for it, but the 
assistants must be quick and handy in effecting the change. 
Many a case of inflammation of the lungs, kidneys, or bowels might 
be stopped in limine by the adoption of this plan ; but the misfor- 
tune is that it requires all the skill and tact of the veterinary surgeon, 
first of all to diagnose the case, and afterwards to manage its treat- 
ment. Still, if a master will undertake the superintendence of 
the operation himself, and is accustomed to disease, there is little 
risk of failure. 

The symptoms of acute pneumonia are a quick and dis- 
tressed respiration, averaging about sixty inspirations in the 
minute. Pulse quick (from seventy to eighty-five) ; hard, often 
small, but always compressible. Nostrils distended, and the 
lining membrane red (except in the last stage, when suffocation is 
imminent). Cough short, and evidently giving pain, which occa- 
sions it to be checked as much as possible. Legs and ears gene- 
rally cold, often icy. Feet wide apart ; evidently with an instinc- 
tive desire to dilate the chest as much as possible. On putting 
the ear to the chest, if the attack is very recent, there will be 
merely a greatly increased respiratory murmur; but when fully 
developed there may be heard a crepitant rattling, which is com- 
pared to the crackling of a dried bladder; but I confess that I 
could never make out the similarity between the two sounds. In 
the later stages, this is succeeded by an absence of all sound, 
owing to the consolidation of the lungs, or by mucous rattles 
depending upou the secretion of mucus. On tapping the exterior 
of the chest with the ends of the fingers (percussion), the sound 
given out is dull in proportion to the extent of mischief, the effect 
of pneumonia being to convert the spongy texture of the lungs 
into a solid substance like liver. The treatment will greatly 
depend upon the stage of the disease, the age and constitution of 
the horse, and the nature of the prevailing epidemic, if there is 
one. In modern days bl ^eding is very badly borne, either by 



344 THE 20RSE. 

man or horse, nevertheless few cases of genuine pneumonia will be 
saved without it. Sufficient blood must be taken to make a decid- 
ed impression on the circulation, without which the inflammation will 
not be mastered. The quantity necessary for this cannot be fixed, 
because the effect will vary so materially, that the abstraction of 
three or four quarts of blood in one case will do more than double 
or treble that quantity in another. A large orifice must be made 
in the vein, and it must not be closed until the lining membrane 
of the nose or the white of the eye is seen to have become con- 
siderably paler. It may possibly even then be necessary to repeat 
the operation six hours afterwards, or next day, according to the 
symptoms. The rule should be followed of taking enough but 
not a drop too much, for blood removed from the circulation takes 
a long time to replace. With regard to medicine, tartar emetic is 
the only drug which seems to have much influence over pneu- 
monia, and it must be given every six hours in drachm doses, 
with from half a drachm to a drachm of powdered digitalis, or 
white hellebore, to keep down the pulse, and two or three 
drachms of nitre, to increase the action of the kidneys. Unless 
the bowels are confined no aperient should be given, and if neces- 
sary only the mildest dose should be used. The diet should con- 
sist of bran mashes, gruel, and a little hay, or green food if the 
season of the year allows. A cool airy stable and warm clothing 
are indispensable in this disease. When the first violence of the 
attack has subsided, a large blister on the side of the chest will 
afford great relief, and when it ceases to act, if the disease is not 
entirely cured a second may be put on the other side. 

Sub-acute pneumonia differs in no respect from the acute form, 
excepting in degree, and the symptoms and treatment will vary 
only in proportion. 

The terminations of pneumonia may be death, or resolution 
(by which is to be understood a disappearance of the symptoms 
without leaving any mischief behind), or hepatization, or abcess. 
The last-named sequel may be very serious in extent, but if an 
opening is made by nature for the discharge of its contents into 
the bronchial tubes the horse may recover, and his wind may be 
sufficiently good for any purposes but the racecourse or the hunt- 
ing field. Hepatization is always attended with thick wind, but 
in other respects the health may be good, and the horse may be 
suited to ordinary work. In process of time some of the lymph is 
absorbed, and a considerable improvement takes place, but it never 
entirely disappears, and a horse which has once suffered from 
pneumonia attended by hepatization remains permanently unsound 



PLEURISY— PLEURODYNIA. 345 

PLEUKISY.* 

This disease ig characterized by a very peculiar respiration, 
the expirations being much longer than the inspirations, owing to 
the pain which is given by the action of the muscles necessary for 
the latter, while the former, if the chest is allowed quietly to fall, 
is almost painless. Nevertheless, the breathing is quicker on the 
whole than natural, being from forty to fifty per minute. The 
pulse is quick, small, and incompressible. Nostrils and eyes of a 
natural color, and the former are not dilated. The countenance is 
anxious, and the legs are rather drawn together than extended, as 
in bronchitis and pneumonia, and they are not colder than usual. 
There is a short hurried cough, with great restlessness, and the 
sides are always painful on pressure ; but this symptom by itself is 
not to be relied on, as it is present in pleurodynia, which will be 
presently described. 

The treatment should consist of copious bleeding, followed by a 
mild purgative, and the same ball as recommended for pneumonia, 
with the addition of half a drachm of calomel. Blisters are not 
desirable to be applied to the sides of the thorax, as there is so 
little space between the two surfaces of the pleura and the skin 
that they are apt to do harm by immediately irritating the former, 
rather than to act beneficially by counter-irritation of the skin. A 
large rowel, may, however, be placed in the breast with advantage. 

Hydrothorax, or water in the cavity of the chest, is one of 
the sequels of chronic pleurisy, the serum thrown out being the 
means by which a serous membrane relieves itself. It can be 
detected by the entire absence of respiratory murmur, and by the 
dullness on percussion. No treatment is of any avail but tapping, 
which may be readily and safely performed (if the diagnosis is 
correct) by passing a trocar between the eighth and ninth ribs, 
near their cartilages. If, however, an error has been committed, 
the lung is wounded, and death will probably ensue. 

PLEURODYNIA. 

Between this disease and the last there is some simi- 
larity in the symptoms ; but in their nature, and in the treatment 
required, they are widely separated. It is, therefore, necessary 
that they should not be confounded, for in the one case blood- 
letting and other active measures may be unnecessarily adopted, 
and in the other a fatal result will most probably occur for want 

* In all diseases the product of which is exudation, or the outpouring of 
water, bleeding, purging, and other devitalizing agents should be religi- 
ously abstained from. Blisters in this disease may be of some service but 
should be used only when inflammation has subsided. Aconite, pure air, 
and cold water is the most successful way of curing pleurisy. — Editob. 



346 THE HORSE. 

of them. In pleuritis there is a quick pulse, with general consti- 
tutional disturbance, which will serve to distinguish it from pleuro- 
dynia, besides which, it is rarely that we meet with the former 
without some other affection of the lungs co-existing. When, 
therefore, a horse is evidently suffering from acute pain in the 
walls of the thorax, unaccompanied by cough, hurried breathing, 
quick pulse, or fever, it may safely be diagnosed that the nature 
of the attack is a rheumatism of the intercostal muscles (pleuro- 
dynia), and not pleurisy. In treating it, bleeding and tartar emetic 
must be carefully avoided, and hot mustard and vinegar rubbed 
into the sides will be the most likely remedy to afford relief. 

PHTHISIS. 

When a horse has long been subject to a chronic cough, 
and, without losing appetite, wastes away rapidly, it may be assumed 
that he is a victim to phthisis, and especially if he is narrow- 
chested and has long shown signs of short wind. On examining 
the chest by the ear, it will be found to give out sounds of various 
kinds, depending upon the exact state of the lungs ; but in most 
cases there will be great dulness on percussion, owing to the 
deposit of tubercles, in which the disease consists. In a confirmed 
case no treatment will avail, and the poor animal had better be 
destroyed. When the attack is slight, the progress of the disease 
may be stayed by counteracting inflammation in the ordinary way, 
avoiding loss of blood when possible. Haemorrhage, from the 
breaking down of the substance of the lung, by which a large 
blood-vessel is opened, is a common result of phthisis, and will be 
alluded to under the head of diseases of the vessels of the lungs, 
at the end of this chapter. 

BROKEN WIND. 

A broken-winded horse can be detected at once by any 
horseman possessed of experience, from the peculiar and forcible 
double expiration. Inspiration is performed as usual, then comes 
a rapid but not violent act of expiration, followed by a forcible 
repetition of the same, in which all the muscles of respiration, 
auxiliary and ordinary, are called into play. This is, of course, 
most marked when the horse has been gallopped, but even when 
he is at rest the double expiration is manifest at almost any ordi- 
nary distance from the observer. The disease almost (if not quite) 
invariably consists in emphysema, or entrance of the air into 
unnatural cells, which is retained there, as the urine is in the 
bladder, from the valvular nature of the openings, and cannot be 
entirely expelled, nor in the slightest degree, without calling into 
play all the muscles of the chest. The presence of unchanged air 
is a constant source of irritation to the lungs, and although suffi- 



BROKEN WIND— THICK WIND. 347 

cient may be expired easily enough to carry on their functions 
while the body is at rest, yet instinctively there is a desire to get 
rid of the surplus, and hence the two acts of respiration. Imme- 
diately after this second act the muscles relax, and the flank falls 
in, and this it is which catches the eye in so remarkable a manner. 
On examination after death, the lungs are found to remain en- 
larged, and do not collapse as in the healthy condition. They are 
distended with air; and this is especially the case when the em- 
physema is of the kind called interlobular, in which the air has 
escaped into the cellular membrane. In the most common kind, 
however, the cells are broken down, several being united together, 
while the enlargement pressing upon the tube which has opened 
into them diminishes its capacity, and prevents the ready escape 
of air. This is the vesicular emphysema of pathologists. The 
former is generally suddenly produced by a severe gallop after a 
full meal, while the latter is a slow growth and often occurs at 
grass, as a consequence of neglected chronic cough, the constant 
muscular efforts appearing gradually to dilate the cells. 

The treatment can only be palliative, as there is no recognised 
cure for the disease, though M. Hew, of Chaumont, has lately pub- 
lished a report of ten cases in which treatment by arsenic given 
with green food or straw, and in some cases bleeding, was perfectly 
successful. The arsenic was given to the extent of fifteen grains 
daily, and at the end of a fortnight the symptoms of broken wind 
were completely removed; but as the horses were not subsequently 
watched, it is impossible to say whether the cure was permanent. 
It is known, however, that one of them relapsed after three months, 
but speedily yielded to a repetition of the treatment. It may cer- 
tainly be worth while to try the experiment of the effect of arsenic 
where a broken-winded horse is valuable in other respects. The 
medicine is not expensive, and the length of time necessary for the 
treatment is not very great. Broken-winded horses should be care- 
fully dieted, and even then confined to slow work. The food should 
be in small compass, consisting chiefly of wheat-straw chaff, with a 
proper quantity of oats, and beans may be added if the animal is 
not very young. The water should never be given within an hour 
of going out of the stable, but it is better to leave a constant sup- 
ply, when too much will never be taken. Carrots are peculiarly 
suited to this disease, and a diet of bran mixed with carrots, sliced, 
has sometimes been known to relieve a broken-winded horse most 
materially. 

THICK WIND. 

Thick wind is the horseman's term for any defective respira- 
tion, unaccompanied by a noise, or by the signs of emphysema just 
alluded to. It usually follows pneumonia, but it may arise from 



348 THE HORSE. 

chronic bronchitis, occasioning a thickening of the mucous mem 
brane lining the bronchial tubes, and thus lessening their diameter, 
or it may accompany phthisis when the deposit of tubercles is ex- 
tensive. No treatment will be of any service except such as will 
aid the play of the, lungs mechanically, by avoiding overloading 
the stomach, as mentioned in the last section. 

SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM. 

Some horses, when at all distressed by the severity of their 
gallops, communicate to the rider a most unpleasant sensation, as 
if some internal part was giving a sudden blow or flap. This is 
not only a sensation, but a reality, for the diaphragm being na- 
turally weak, or overstrained at some previous period, acts spas- 
modically in drawing in the air. If the horse thus affected is rid- 
den onwards afterwards, he will be placed in danger of suffocation 
and death, either from rupture of the diaphragm, or from its cessa- 
tion to act, or from its permanently contracting and refusing to 
give way during expiration. There is no cure for the weakness 
which tends to produce the spasm, and all that can be done is to 
avoid using the horse affected with it at any very fast pace, and 
over a distance of ground. Urgent symptoms may be relieved by 
a cordial-drench, such as the following : — 

Take of Laudanum 6 drachms. 

Ether 1$ ounce. 

Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia . . 3 drachms. 

Tincture of Ginger 3 drachms. 

Ale 1 pint. Mix. 

Or if there is any difficulty in giving a drench, a ball may be 
made up and given — 

Take of Carbonate of Ammonia .... 1 drachm. 

Camphor £ drachm. 

Powdered Ginger 1 drachm. 

Linseed meal and boiling water sufficient to make into a ball. 

Either of the above may be repeated at the end of three hours, 
if relief is not afforded. Increased strength may be given to the 
diaphragm by regular slow work, and the daily mixture of a drachm 
of powdered sulphate of iron with the feed of corn. 

DISEASES OF THE HEART. 

The horse is subject to inflammation of the substance of the 
heart (carditis) of a rheumatic nature, and of the fibro-serous cover- 
ing (pericarditis), but the symptoms are so obscure that no one but 
the professional veterinarian will be likely to make them out. 
Dropsy of the heart is a common disease in worn-out horses, and 
hypertrophy, as well as fatty degeneration, are often met with 
among well-conditioned animals. 



DISEASES OF BLOOD-VESSELS. 349 



DISEASES OF THE BLOOD-VESSELS OF THE CHEST 
AND NOSE. 

The horse is very subject to hemorrhage from the nose, 
coming on during violent exertion, and many a race has been lost 
from this cause. Fat over-fed horses are the most likely to suffer 
from hemorrhage ; but most people are aware of the risk in- 
curred in over-riding or driving them, and for this reason they 
are not so often subject to this accident (for such it is rather than 
a disease) as they otherwise would be. It is unnecessary to de- 
scribe its symptoms, as the gush of blood renders it but too appa- 
rent, and the only point necessary to inquire into is, whether the 
lungs or the nasal cavities are the seat of the rupture of the vessel. 
In the former case the blood comes from both nostrils, and is 
frothy ; while in the latter it generally proceeds from one only, 
and is perfectly fluid. The treatment should consist in cooling the 
horse down by a dose of physic and a somewhat lower diet; but if 
the bleeding is very persistent, and returns again and again, a 
saturated solution of alum in water may be syringed up the nostril 
daily, or, if this fails, an infusion of matico may be tried, which is 
far more likely to succeed. It is made by pouring half a pint of 
boiling water on a drachm of matico-leaves, and letting it stand till 
cool, when it should be strained, and is fit for use. 

Hemorrhage from the lungs is a far more serious affair, 
and its control requires active remedies if they are to be of any 
service. It may arise from the existence of an abscess n the 
lung of a phthisical nature, which implicates some considerable 
vessel; or it may be caused by the bursting of an aneurism, which 
is a dilatation of a large artery, and generally occurs near the heart. 
The treatment can seldom do more than prolong the life of the 
patient for a short time, and it is scarcely worth while to enter 
upon it. Bleeding from the jugular vein will arrest the internal 
haemorrhage, and must often be resorted to in the first instance, 
and there are internal medicines which will assist it, such as digi- 
talis and matico ; but, as before remarked, this only postpones the 
fatal termination. 




30 



350 THE HORSE. 

CHAPTER XXII. 

DISEASES OP THE ABDOMINAL VISCERA AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 

General remarks — Diseases of the Mouth and Throat — Gastritis — 
Stomach Staggers — Dyspepsia — Bots — Inflammation of the 
Bowels — Colic — Diarrhoea and Dysentery — Strangulation and 
Rupture — Calculi in the Bowels — Worms — Disease of the 
Liver — of the Kidneys — of the Bladder — of the Organs of 
Generation. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

Though not often producing what in horse-dealing is con- 
sidered unsoundness, yet diseases of the abdominal viscera con- 
stantly lead to death, and frequently to such a debilitated state of 
the body, that the sufferer is rendered useless. Fortunately for 
the purchaser, they almost always give external evidence of their 
presence, for there is not only emaciation, but also a staring coat 
and a flabby state of the muscles, which is quite the reverse of the 
wiry feel communicated to the hand in those instances where the 
horse is " poor" from over-work in proportion to his food. In the 
latter case, time and good living only are required to restore the 
natural plumpness ; but in the former, the wasting will either go 
on until death puts an end to the poor diseased animal, or he 
will remain in a debilitated and wasted condition, utterly unfit for 
hard work. 

DISEASES OF THE MOUTH AND THROAT. 

Several parts about the mouth are liable to inflammation, 
which would be of little consequence in itself, but that it inter- 
feres with the feeding, and this for the time starves the horse, 
and renders him unfit for his work, causing him to "quid" or 
return his food into the manger without swallowing it. Such are 
lampas, vives or enlarged glands, barbs or paps, gigs, bladders, 
and flaps, — all which are names given to the enlargements of the 
salivary ducts, — and carious teeth, or inflammation of their fangs. 
Besides these, the horse is also subject to sore throat, and stran- 
gles, which are accompanied by constitutional disturbance, and 
not only occasion " quidding," if there is any slight appetite, but 
they are also generally accompanied by a loss of that function. 

Sore throat. — When the throat inflames, as is evidenced by 
fulness and hardness of this part, and there is difficulty of swal- 
lowing, the skin covering it should immediately be severely sweated, 
or the larynx will be involved and irreparable injury done. The 
tincture of cantharides diluted with an equal part of spirit of tur- 



= , 
c 5T 






•K 



R « d 



- = '-_ 




STRANGLES— LAMPAS. 351 

pontine and a little oil, may be rubbed in with a piece of sponge, 
until it produces irritation of the skin, which in a few hours will 
be followed by a discbarge from the part. Six or eight drachms 
of nitre may also be dissolved in the water which the horse drinks, 
with some difficulty, but still, as he is thirsty, he will take it. 
Sometimes eating gives less pain than drinking, and then the 
nitre may be given with a bran mash instead of the water. 

Strangles. — Between the third and fifth year of tbe colt's life 
he is generally seized with an acute swelling of the soft parts 
between the branches of the lower jaw, accompanied by more or 
less sore throat, cough and feverishness. These go on increasing 
for some days, and then an abscess shows itself, and finally bursts. 
The salivary glands are often involved, but the matter forms in 
the cellular membrane external to them. The treatment should 
be addressed to the control of constitutional symptoms by the 
mildest measures, such as bran mashes with nitre in them, abstrac- 
tion- of corn, hay tea, &c. At the same time the swelling should 
be poulticed for one night, or thoroughly fomented two or three 
times, and then blistered with the tincture of cantharides. As 
soon as the matter can plainly be felt, it may be let out with a 
lancet; but it is very doubtful whether it is not the best plan to 
permit the abscess to break. The bowels should be gently moved, 
by giving a pint, or somewhat less, according to age, of castor oil ; 
and afterwards two or three drachms of nitre, with half a drachm 
of tartar emetic, may be mixed with the mash twice a day, on 
which food alone the colt should be fed, in addition to gruel, and 
a little grass or clover if these are to be had, or if not, a few steamed 
carrots. The disease has a tendency to get well naturally, but if 
it is not kept within moderate bounds it is very apt to lay the 
foundation of roaring or whistling. Any chronic swelling which 
is left behind, may be removed by rubbing in a weak ointment of 
biniodide of mercury (one scruple or half drachm to the ounce; 
see page 300). 

Lampas is an active inflammation of the ridges, or "bars," in 
the hoof of the mouth, generally occurring in the young horse 
while he is shedding his teeth, or putting up the tushes. Some- 
times, however, it comes on, independently of this cause, from 
over-feeding with corn after a run at grass. The mucous mem- 
brane of the roof of the mouth swells so much that it projects 
below the level of the nippers, and is so tender that all hard and 
dry food is refused. The treatment is extremely simple, consist- 
ing in the scarification of the part with a sharp knife or lancet, 
after which the swelling generally subsides, and is gone in a day 
or two; but should it obstinately continue, as will sometimes 
happen, a stick of lunar caustic must be gently rubbed over the 
part every day until a cure is completed. This is far better than 



352 THE HORSE. 

the red-hot iron, which was formerly so constantly used, with 
good effect it is true, and not accompanied by any cruelty, as the 
mucous membrane is nearly insensible, but the caustic is more 
rapid and effectual in stimulating the vessels to a healthy action, 
and on that score should be preferred. If the lampas is owing to 
the cutting of a grinder, relief will be afforded by a crucial inci- 
sion across the protruding gum. 

Barbs, paps, &c. — The swelling at the mouth of the ducts 
may generally be relieved by a dose of physic and green food, but 
should it continue, a piece of lunar caustic may be held for a 
moment against the opening of the duct every second day, and 
after two or three applications the thickening will certainly 
disappear. 

Where vives, or chronically enlarged submaxillary glands, are 
met with, the application of the ointment of biniodide of mercury, 
according to the directions given at page 300, will almost certainly 
cause their reduction to a natural state. 

GASTRITIS. 

Gastritis (acute inflammation of the stomach) is extremely 
rare in the horse as an idiopathic disease ; but it sometimes occurs 
from eating vegetable poisons as food, or from the wilful introduc- 
tion of arsenic into this organ, or, lastly, from licking off corrosive 
external applications, which have been used for mange. The symp- 
toms from poisoning will a good deal depend upon the article 
which has been taken, but in almost all cases in which vegetable 
poisons have been swallowed, there is a strange sort of drowsiness, 
so that the horse does not lie down and go to sleep, but props him- 
self against a wall or tree with his head hanging almost to the 
ground. As the drowsiness increases he often falls down in his 
attempt to rest himself more completely, and when on the ground 
his breathing is loud and hard, and his sleep is so unnaturally 
sound that he can scarcely be roused from it. At length con- 
vulsions occur and death soon takes place. This is the ordinary 
course of poisoning with yew, which is sometimes picked up with 
the grass after the clippings have dried, for in its fresh state the 
taste is too bitter for the palate, and the horse rejects the mouthful 
of grass in which it is involved. May-weed and water parsley will 
also produce nearly similar symptoms. The treatment in each 
case should be by rousing the horse mechanically, and at the same 
time giving him six or eight drachms of aromatic spirit of ammonia, 
in a pint or two of good ale, with a little ginger in it. This may 
be repeated every two hours, and the horse should be perpetually 
walked about until the narcotic symptoms are completely gone off, 
when a sound sleep will restore him to his natural state. 

Arsenic, when given in large doses, with an intention to destroy 



STOMACH STAGGERS. 353 

life, produces intense pain and thirst ; — the former, evidenced by an 
eager gaze at the flanks, pawing of the ground, or rolling ; and 
sometimes by each of these in succession. The saliva is secreted 
in increased quantities, and flows from the mouth, as the throat is 
generally too sore to allow of its being swallowed. The breath 
soon becomes hot and fetid, and purging then comes on of a bloody 
mucus, which soon carries off the patient by exhaustion, if death 
does not take place from the immediate effects of the poison on the 
stomach and brain. Treatment is seldom of any avail, the most 
likely remedies being large bleedings, blisters to the sides of the 
chest, and plenty of thin gruel to sheathe the inflamed surface 
of the mucous membrane, which is deprived of its epithelial 
scales. 

Corrosive sublimate* is sometimes employed as a wash in 
mange, or to destroy lice, when it may be licked off, and will occa- 
sion nearly the same symptoms as arsenic. The treatment consists 
in a similar use of thin starch or gruel ; or, if the poison has 
recently been given wilfully, of large quantities of white of egg. 

STOMACH STAGGEKS. 

The exact nature of this disease has never been clearly 
made out, and it is now so rare, that there is little chance of its 
being satisfactorily explained. The symptoms would chiefly lead 
one to suppose the brain to be implicated ; but there is so close a 
sympathy between that organ and the stomach, that we can easily 
account in that way for the cerebral manifestations. A theory has 
been propounded, that it is seated in the par vagum, or pneumo- 
gastric nerve; and as all the parts with which that nerve is con- 
nected are affected, there is some ground for the hypothesis ; but 
it is not supported by the demonstration of anatomy, simply, per- 
haps, because of the difficulty in the way of prosecuting the 
pathology of the nerves. The first onset of the disease is marked 
by great heaviness of the eyes, soon going on to drowsiness ; the 
head dropping into the manger, even while feeding is in progress. 
It generally makes its appearance after a long fast ; and it is sup- 
posed by some writers to be owing to the demands made by the 
stomach on the brain, when in an exhausted condition for want of 
its usual supplies. This theory is supported by the fact that, in 
the present day, when every horsemaster knows the danger of 
working his horses without feeding them at intervals of five, or at 
most six hours, the stomach staggers are almost unknown. Even 
when the disease shows itself at grass, it is almost always mani- 

* First. — Give one-half of an ounce of iodide of potassium to convert 
the mercury into an iodide of the metal, which is harmless comparatively 
to corrosive sublimate. Then give the white of egg, &c, spoken of in the 
text.— Editor. 

30* Z 



354 THE HORSE. 

fested directly after the horse is first turned out, when he gorges 
himself with the much-coveted food, which has long been withheld, 
and his brain is affected in a manner similar to that which follows a 
long fast from every kind of food. In a short time, if the affection 
of the brain is not relieved, that organ becomes still more severely 
implicated, and convulsions or paralysis put an end to the attack. 
During the course of the disease, the breathing is affected, and 
there is generally an almost total cessation of the secretions of bile 
and urine, which may either be the cause or the effect of the con- 
dition of the brain. With this state of uncertainty as to the 
essence of the disease, it is somewhat empirical to lay down any 
rules for its treatment; and, as I before remarked, it is now so 
rare, that they are scarcely necessary. If care be taken to feed 
the horse properly, he will never suffer from stomach staggers in 
the stable ; and at grass, the attack is seldom observed until he 
is beyond the reach of any remedies. Still, it may be as well to 
observe, that the usual plan of proceeding has been to take away 
blood, so as to relieve the brain, and to stimulate ihe stomach 
to get rid of its load, by the use of warm aperients, such as the 
following : — 

Take of Barbadoes Aloes 4 to 6 drachms. 

Tincture of Ginger 3 drachms. 

Dissolve the aloes in a pint of hot water, then add the tincture, and when 
nearly cool give as a drench.* 

DYSPEPSIA. 

Every domestic animal suffers in health if he is constantly 
fed on the same articles, and man himself, perhaps, more than 
they do. Partridges are relished by him early in September, but 
toujours perdrix would disgust the most inveterate lover of that 
article of food. Dogs are too often made to suffer from being fed 
on the same meal, flavored with similar flesh or broth, from one 
month to another. It is well known that cattle and sheep must 
change their pasture, or they soon lose condition ; and yet horses 
are expected to go on eating oats and hay for years together with- 
out injury to health; and at the same time they are often exposed 
to the close air of a confined stable, and to an irregular amount of 
exercise. We cannot, therefore, wonder that the master is often 
told that some one or other of his horses is " a little off his feed ;" 
nor should we be surprised that the constant repetition of the 
panacea for this, " a dose of physic," should at length permanently 
establish the condition which at first it would alwayB alleviate. 
It is a source of wonder that the appetite continues so good as it 

*In addition to the treatment, I would recommend that from 15 to 20 drops 
of the tincture of aconite root be given to control the heart's action, and 
thereby the circulation of the blood. — Editor. 



DYSPEPSIA— BOTS. 355 

does, in the majority of horses, which are kept in the stable on 
the same kind of food, always from July to May, and often 
through the other months also. The use of a few small bundles 
of vetches, lucerne, or clover in the spring, is supposed to be 
quite sufficient to restore tone to the stomach, and undoubtedly 
they are better than no change at all ; but at other seasons of the 
year something may be done towards the prevention of dyspepsia, 
by varying the quality of the hay, and by the use of a few carrots 
once or twice a week. In many stables, one rick of hay is made 
to serve throughout the whole or a great part of the year, which 
is a very bad plan, as a change in this important article of food is 
as much required as a change of pasture when the animal is at 
grass. "When attention is paid to this circumstance, the appetite 
will seldom fail in horses of a good constitution, if they are regu- 
larly worked ; but without it, resort must occasionally be had to a 
dose of physic. It is from a neglect of this precaution that so many 
horses take to eat their litter, in preference to their hay ; for if the 
same animal was placed in a straw-yard, without hay, for a month, 
and then allowed access to both," there would be little doubt that he 
would prefer the latter. Some horses are naturally so voracious, 
that they are always obliged to be supplied with less than they 
desire, and they seldom suffer from loss of appetite; but delicate 
feeders require the greatest care in their management. When the 
stomach suffers in this way, it is always desirable to try what a 
complete change of food will do before resorting to medicine ; and, 
if it can be obtained, green food of some kind should be chosen, 
or if not, carrots, or even steamed potatoes. In place of hay, 
sound wheat or barley straw may be cut into chaff, and mixed 
with the carrots and corn; and to this a little malt-dust may be 
added, once or twice a week, so as to alter the flavor. By con- 
tinually changing the food in this way, the most dyspeptic 
stomach may often be restored to its proper tone, without doing 
harm with one hand while the other is doing good, as is too often 
the case with medicine. The use of the fashionable " horse- 
feeds " of the present day will serve the same purpose ; and if 
the slight changes I have mentioned do not answer, Thorley's or 
Henri's food may be tried with great probability of success. 

BOTS. 

The larvae of the oestrus equi, a species of gadfly, are often 
found in large numbers, attached by a pair of hooks with which 
they are provided, to the cardiac extremity of the stomach ; they 
are very rarely met with in the true digestive portion of this 
organ, but sometimes in the duodenum or jejunum in small numbers. 
A group of these larvae, which are popularly called bots, are repre- 
sented on the next page, but sometimes nearly all the cardiac ex- 



'656 



THE HORSE. 



tremity of the stomach is occupied with them, the interstices being 
occupied by little projections which are caused by those that have 
let go their hold, and have been expelled with the food. Several 
of these papilhe are shown on the engraving, which delineates also 
the appearance of the bots themselves, so tbat no one can fail to 
recognise them when he sees them. This is important, for it often 




Fig. 18. — group of bots attached to the stomach. 

happens that a meddlesome groom when he sees them expelled 
from or hanging to the verge of the anus, as they often do for a 
short time, thinks it necessary to use strong medicine ; whereas in 
the first place he does no good, for none is known which will kill 
the larva without danger to the horse, and in the second, if he will 
only have a little patience, every bot will come away in the natural 
course of things, and until the horse is turned out to grass, during 
the season when the oestrus deposits its eggs, he will never have 
another in his stomach. 

The (estrus equi comes out from the pupa state in the middle 
and latter part of summer, varying according to the season, and 
the female soon finds the proper nidus for her eggs in the hair of 
the nearest horse turned out to grass. She manages to glue them 
to the sides of the hair so firmly that no ordinary friction will get 
rid of them, and her instinct teaches her to select those parts 
within reach of the horse's tongue, such as the hair of the fore 
legs and sides. Here they remain until the heat of the sun hatches 
them, when, being no larger in diameter than a small pin, each 
larva is licked off and carried down the gullet to the stomach, to 
the thick epithelium of which it soon attaches itself by its hooks. 
Here it remains until the next spring, having attained the size 



INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 357 

which is represented in the engraving during the course of the 
first two months of its life, and then it fulfils its allotted career, 
by letting go and being carried out with the dung. On reaching 
the outer air it soon assumes the chrysalis condition, and in three 
or four weeks bursts its covering to become the perfect insect. 

From this history it will be evident that no preventive 
measures will keep off the attacks of the fly when the horse is at 
grass, and, indeed, in those districts where they abound, they will 
deposit their ova in the hair of the stabled horse if he is allowed 
to stand still for a few minutes. The eggs are, however, easily 
recognised in any horse but a chestnut, to which color they closely 
assimilate, and as they are never deposited in large numbers on 
the stabled horse they may readily be removed by the groom. 
Unlike other parasites, they seem to do little or no harm, on 
account of the insensible nature of the part of the stomach to 
which they are attached, and, moreover, their presence is seldom 
discovered until the season of their migration, when interference 
is uncalled for. On all accounts, therefore, it is unnecessary to 
enter into the question, whether it is possible to expel them; and 
even if by chance one comes away prematurely it will be wise to 
avoid interfering by attempting to cause the expulsion of those left 
behind. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 

(Peritonitis and Enteritis.) 

A reference to the cut of the abdomen and its contents, oppo- 
site page 278, will explain that there are two divisions of the 
abdominal serous sac, one of which lines the walls of the cavity, 
and the other covers the viscera which lie in it. In human medi- 
cine, when the former is inflamed, the disease is termed peritonitis, 
and when the latter is the subject of inflammatory action it is 
called enteritis. But though in theory this distinction is made, in 
practice it is found that the one seldom exists without the other 
being developed to a greater or less extent. Veterinary writers 
have generally taken the nomenclature adopted in human ana- 
tomy and pathology, but in regard to the inflammations of the 
bowels they define peritonitis as inflammation of the peritoneal or 
serous coat, and enteritis as inflammation of the muscular coat. 
My own belief is, that during life it is impossible by any known 
symptoms to distinguish the exact locale of any inflammation of 
the bowels but that of their mucous lining, which will presently 
be described, and that wherever the actual serous covering of the 
bowels is involved the muscular fibres beneath it will be implicated, 
but that the serious and fatal symptoms manifested in such cases 
are not dependent upon the latter, but are due entirely to the 
lesions of the serous coat. I hav' examined numberless fatal 



358 THE HORSE. 

cases of supposed enteritis, and have uniformly found signs of 
inflammation of the serous investment, sometimes implicating the 
muscular fibres beneath, and often extending to the peritoneal 
lining of the walls of the abdomen, but I have never yet seen 
marks of inflammation in the muscular tissue without their serous 
covering being affected to a much greater extent. I believe there- 
fore that the distinction is erroneously founded, and that, theoreti- 
cally, the same definition should be made of the two diseases as is in 
use by human pathologists, though practically this is of little im- 
portance. There is no well made out inflammation of muscular 
tissue (except that of the heart) in which the symptoms are so 
urgent and so rapidly followed by a fatal issue as in the latter stages 
of the disease described by Mr. Percivall under the head enteritis, 
as follows: — "The next stage borders on delirium. The eye 
acquires a wild, haggard, and unnatural stare — the pupil dilates — 
his heedless and dreadful throes render approach to him quite 
perilous, he is an object not only of compassion but of apprehen- 
sion, and seems fast hurrying to his end — when all at once, in the 
midst of agonizing torments he stands quiet, as though every pain 
had left him and he were going to recover. His breathing becomes 
tranquillized — his pulse sunk beyond all perception — his body 
bedewed with a cold clammy sweat — he is in a tremor from head 
to foot, and about the legs and ears has even a dead-like feel. The 
mouth feels deadly chill — the lips drop pendulous, and the eye 
seems unconscious of objects. In fine, death, not recovery, is at 
hand. Mortification has seized the inflamed bowel — pain can no 
longer be felt in that which a few minutes ago was the seat of 
most exquisite suffering. He again becomes convulsed, and in a 
few more struggles less violent than the former he expires." 
Analogy would lead any careful pathologist to suppose that such 
symptoms as these are due to some lesion of a serous and not a 
muscular tissue, and, as I before remarked, I have satisfied myself 
that such is really the case. I have seen lymph, pus, and serum 
effused in some cases of enteritis, and mortification extending to a 
large surface of the peritoneal coat in others, but I have never 
examined a single case without one or the other of these morbid 
results. It may be said that so long as the symptoms are correctly 
described their exact seat is of no consequence; but in this 
instance it is probable that the ordinary definition of enteritis as an 
inflammation of the muscular coat may lead to a timid praotice in 
its treatment, which would be attended with the worst results. I 
have no fault to find with the usual descriptions of the two 
diseases, or with their ordinary treatment, but I protest against 
the definition which is given of them. 

An examination of the cause of inflammation of the bowels 
is the only means by which the one form can be distinguished 



INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 359 

from the other. If it has been brought about from exposure to 
cold, or from over-stimulating medicines given for colic, the proba- 
bility is that the serous covering of the intestines themselves is 
chiefly involved ; while if it has followed castration it may gener- 
ally be concluded that the peritoneal lining of the abdominal 
muscles has taken on inflammatory action by an immediate exten- 
sion from the serous lining of the inguinal canal, which is con- 
tinuous with it. In each case, however, the symptoms are as 
nearly as may be the same, and without knowing the previous 
history I believe no one could distinguish the one disease from the 
other — nor should the treatment vary in any respect. 

The symptoms of peritoneal inflammation vary in intensity, 
and in the rapidity of their development, but they usually show 
themselves in the following order : — At first there is simple loss of 
appetite, dulness of eye, and a general uneasiness, which are soon 
followed by a slight rigor or shivering. The pulse becomes rapid, 
but small and wiry, and the horse becomes very restless, pawing 
his litter, and looking back at his sides in a wistful and anxious 
manner. In the next stage all these signs are aggravated ; the 
hind legs are used to strike at but not touch the belly; and the 
horse lies down, rolls on his back and struggles violently. The 
pulse becomes quicker and harder, but is still small. The belly is 
acutely tender and hard to the touch, the bowels are costive, and 
the horse is constantly turning round, moaning, and regarding his 
flanks with the most anxious expression of countenance. Next 
comes on the stage so graphically described by Mr. Percivall in 
the passage which I have quoted, the whole duration of the attack 
being from twelve to forty eight hours in acute cases, and extend- 
ing to three or four days in those which are denominated sub- 
acute. 

In the treatment of this disease, as in all those implicating serous 
membrane, blood must be taken largely, and in a full stream, the 
quantity usually required to make a suitable impression being 
from six to nine quarts. The belly should be fomented with very 
hot water, by two men holding against it a doubled blanket, dipped 
in that fluid, which should be constantly changed, to keep up the 
temperature. The bowels should be back-raked, and the follow- 
ing drench should be given every six hours till it operates, which 
shmld be hastened by injections of warm water. 

Take of Linseed oil 1 pint. 

Laudanum 2 ounces. 

If the first bleeding does not give relief in six or eight hours, it 
must be repeated to the extent of three or four quarts, and at the 
same time some liquid blister may be rubbed into the skin of the 
abdomen, continuing the fomentations, at short intervals, under 



360 THE HORSE. 

that part, which will hasten its operation. The diet should be eon- 
fined to thin gruel or bran mashes, and no hay should be allowed 
until the severity of the attack has abated.* 

To distinguish this disease from colic is of the highest import- 
ance, and for this purpose it will be necessary to describe the 
symptoms of the latter disease, so as to compare the two together. 

COLIC. 

In this disease there is spasm of the muscular coat of the 
intestines, generally confined to the caecum and colon. Various 
names have been given to its different forms, such as the fret, the 
gripes, spasmodic colic, flatulent colic, &c, but they all display the 
above feature, and are only modifications of it, depending upon 
the cause which has produced it. In spasmodic colic, the bowels 
are not unnaturally distended, but in flatulent colic their distension 
by gas brings on the spasm, the muscular fibres being stretched to 
so great an extent as to cause them to contract irregularly and 
with a morbid action. Sometimes, when the bowels are very cos- 
tive, irritation is established as an effort of nature to procure the 
dislodgment of the impacted faecal matters, and thus a third cause 
of the disease is discovered. The exact nature and cause are 
always to be ascertained from the history of the case, and its 
symptoms, and as the treatment will especially be conducted with 
a view to a removal of the cause, they are of the highest import- 
ance. The symptoms in all cases of colic, by which it may be 
distinguished from the last-described disease, are as follows : In 
both acute pain is manifested by stamping, looking at the flanks, 
and rolling ; but in enteritis the pain is constant, while in colic, 
there are intervals of rest, when the horse seems quite easy, and 
often begins to feed. In both the poor animal strikes at his belly; 
but in the former he takes great care not to touch the skin, while 
in the latter (colic) he will often bring the blood by his desperate 
efforts to get rid of his annoyance. In enteritis the belly is hot 
and exquisitely tender to the touch, but in colic it is not unnatur- 
ally warm, and gradual pressure with a broad surface, such as the 
whole hand, always is readily borne, and generally affords relief. 
The pulse also is little affected in colic ; and, lastly, the attack is 
very much more sudden than in peritoneal inflammation. 

Such are the general signs by which a case of colic may be 
distinguished from inflammation of the bowels, but beyond this it 
is necessary to investigate whether it is pure spasmodic colic, or 
produced by flatulence, or by an obstruction in the bowels. 

* Do not bleed, but substitute for it 20 drops of the tincture of aconite 
root every 3 hours till 4 to 5 doses are given, and allow pure air with plenty 
of cold water to drink. — Editor. 



COLIC. 361 

In spasmodic colic all the above symptoms are displayed, with- 
out any great distension of the abdomen ; and if the history of the 
case is gone into, it will be found that after coming in heated the 
horse has been allowed to drink cold water, or has been exposed 
in an exhausted state to a draught of air. 

In flatulent colic the abdomen is enormously distended ; the 
attack is not so sudden, and the pain is not so intense, being rather 
to be considered, in the average of cases, as a high degree of un- 
easiness, occasionally amounting to a sharp pang, than giving the 
idea of agony. In aggravated attacks, the distension is so enor- 
mous as to leave no doubt of the nature of the exciting cause. 
Here also the spasms are often brought on by drinking cold water 
while the horse is in a heated and exhausted state. 

"Where there is a stoppage in the bowels to cause the 
spasm, on questioning the groom, it will be found that the dung 
for some days has been hard and in small lumps, with occasional 
patches of mucus upon it. In other respects there is little to dis- 
tinguish this variety from the last. 

The treatment must in all cases be conducted on a totally differ- 
ent plan to that necessary when inflammation is present. Bleeding 
will be of no avail, at all events in the early stages, and before tho 
disease has gone on, as it sometimes will, into an inflammatory 
condition. On the other hand, stimulating drugs, which would be 
fatal in enteritis, will here generally succeed in causing a return 
of healthy muscular action. The disease is indeed similar in its 
essential features to cramp in the muscles of the human leg or 
arm, the only difference being that it does not as speedily lis- 
appear, because it is impossible to get at the muscular coat of the 
intestines, and apply the stimulus of friction. 

As soon as a case is clearly made out to be of a spas- 
modic nature, one or other of the following drenches should be 
given, the choice being made in proportion to the intensity of the 
symp soms : — 

1. Sulphuric Ether 1 ounce. 

Laudanum 2 ounces 

Compound decoction of Aloes 5 ounees 

Mix and give every half hour until relief is afforded. 

2. Spirit of Turpentine 4 ounces. 

Linseed Oil 12 ounces. 

Laudanum \\ ounce. 

Mix and give every hour till the pain ceases. 

3. Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia 1 J ounce. 

Laudanum 2 ounces. 

Tincture of Ginger \\ ounce. 

Hot Ale 1 "quart. 

Mix and give ever Hour. 
31 



362 THE HORSE. 

Hot water should also be applied to the abdomen, as described 
under the head of Enteritis, and if an enema pump is at hand, 
large quantities of water, at a temperature of 100 Fahrenheit, 
should be injected per anum, until in fac<; the bowel will hold no 
more without a dangerous amount of force. 

In flatulent colic the same remedies may be employed, but 
the turpentine mixture is here especially beneficial. The use of 
warm water injections will often bring away large volumes of wind, 
which at once affords relief, and the attack is cured. Sometimes, 
however, the distension goes on increasing, and the only chance 
of recovery consists in a puncture of the caecum, as it lies high in 
the right flank, where, according to French veterinary writers, it 
may often be opened when greatly distended, without dividing the 
serous covering. The operation, however, should only be per- 
formed by an experienced hand, as it is one of great danger, and 
a knowledge of the anatomy of the parts concerned is required to 
select the most available situation. 

The treatment op impaction must be completely a pos- 
teriori, for all anterior proceedings with aperient medicines will 
only aggravate the spasms. Injection of gallons of warm water, 
or of gruel containing a quart of castor oil and half a pint of spirit 
of turpentine, will sometimes succeed in producing a passage, and 
at the same time the spasm may be relieved by the exhibition at 
the mouth of one ounce of laudanum and the same quantity of 
sulphuric ether. If there is any tenderness of the abdomen, or 
the pulse has a tendency to quicken, it will be better to resort to 
bleeding, which alone will sometimes cause the peristaltic action 
to be restored in a healthy manner. The case, however, requires 
great patience and judgment, and as no great good can often be 
effected, it is highly necessary to avoid doing harm, which can 
hardly be avoided if the remedies employed are not at once suc- 
cessful. 

When the urgent symptoms of colic in any of its forms are 
relieved, great care must be exercised that a relapse does not take 
place from the use of improper food. The water should be care- 
fully chilled, and a warm bran mash should be given, containing in it 
half a feed of bruised oats. Nothing but these at moderate inter- 
vals, in the shape of food or drink, should be allowed for a day 
or two, and then the horse may gradually return to his customary 
treatment, avoiding, of course, everything which may appear to 
have contributed to the development of colic. 

DIARRHCEA AND DYSENTERY. 

A distinction is attempted to be made between these two dis- 
eases, — the former name being confined to an inflammation of the 
mucous membrane of the small intestines, while the latter is said 



DIARRHCEA ATiD DYSENTERY. 363 

to reside in the large. It is very difficult, however, if not impos- 
sible, to distinguish the one from the other by the symptoms dur- 
ing life, and in ordinary practice they may be considered as one 
disease, the treatment depending in great measure on the exciting 
cause. This in most cases is to be found in the use of too violent 
" physic," or in not resting the horse after it has begun to act 
until some hours after it has completely " set." Sometimes it 
depends on the cells of the colon having long been loaded with 
faeces, which causes, at length, their mucous lining to inflame, the 
consequent secretion having a tendency to loosen them and pro- 
cure their dismissal, either by solution or by the forcible contrac- 
tion of the muscular coat. This last disease is known by the name 
of " molten grease" to old-fashioned farriers, the clear mucus which 
envelopes the lumps of faeces being supposed to be derived from 
the internal fat that is generally plentifully developed in the highly 
fed horses that are especially subject to the attack. For practical 
purposes, therefore, we may consider the different forms under the 
head of superpurgation, diarrhoea, and dysentery, meaning by the 
last name that condition which is brought about by and attended 
with a discharge of lumps of hard faecal matter enveloped in 
mucus. 

Superpurgation is sometimes so severe as to place a delicate 
horse in great danger. When the action of the bowels has gone 
on for three or four days consecutively, and there is no disposition 
to " set," the eyes become staring and glassy, the pulse is feeble, 
and the heart flutters in the most distressing manner ; the mouth 
has a peculiarly offensive smell, the tongue being pale and covered 
with a white fur having a brown centre. The abdomen is gene- 
rally tucked tightly up, but in the later stages large volumes of 
gas are evolved, and it becomes tumid. 

The treatment should consist in the exhibition of rice, boiled 
till quite soft, and if not taken voluntarily, it should be given as a 
drench, mixed into a thin liquid form with warm water. If the 
case is severe, one or two ounces of laudanum may be added to a 
quart of rice milk, and given every time the bowels act with vio- 
lence. Or a thin gruel may be made with wheat meal, and the 
laudanum be mixed with that instead of the rice. A perseverance 
in these remedies will almost invariably produce the desired effect, 
if they have not been deferred until the horse is very much ex- 
hausted, when a pint of port wine may be substituted for the 
laudanum with advantage. 

In diarrhoea resulting from cold, or over-exertion, the treat* 
ment should be exactly like that prescribed for superpurgation, 
but it will sometimes be necessary to give chalk in addition to the 
remedies there allutf jd to. The rice or flour-milk may be admin- 



364 THE HORSE. 

istered as food, and the following drench given by itself every 
time there is a discharge of liquid faeces : — 

Take of Powdered Opium 1 drachm. 

Tincture of Catechu i ounce. 

Chalk Mixture 1 pint. 

Mix and give as a drench. 

During the action of these remedies the body must be kept 
warm by proper clothing, and the legs should be encased in flan- 
nel bandages, previously made hot at the fire, and renewed as they 
become cold. 

In dysentery (or molten grease) it is often necessary to take 
a little blood away, if there is evidence of great inflammation in 
the amount of mucus surrounding the faeces, and when aperient 
medicine does not at once put a stop to the cause of irritation by 
bringing the lumps away from the cells of the colon. Back-raking, 
and injections of two ounces of laudanum and a pint of castor oil 
with gruel, should be adopted in the first instance, but they will 
seldom be fully efficient without the aid of linseed oil given by the 
mouth. A pint of this, with half a pint of good castor oil, will 
generally produce a copious discharge of lumps, and then the irri- 
tation ceases without requiring any further interference. 

Whenever there is diarrhoea or dysentery present to any extent, 
rice-water should be the sole drink. 

STRANGULATION AND RUPTURE. 

Mechanical violence is done to the stomach and bowels in 
various ways, but in every case the symptoms will be those of 
severe inflammation of the serous coat, speedily followed by death, 
if not relieved when relief is possible. Sometimes the stomach is 
ruptured from over-distension — at others the small intestines have 
been known to share the same fate, but the majority of cases are 
due to strangulation of a particular portion of the bowels, by being 
tied or pressed upon by some surrounding band. This may hap- 
pen either from a loop of bowel being forced through an opening 
in the mesentery or mesocolon, or from a band of organized lymph, 
the result of previous inflammation — or from one portion of the 
bowels forcing itself into another, like the inverted finger of a 
glove, and the included portion being firmly contracted upon by 
the exterior bowel, so as to produce dangerous pressure (intussus- 
ception), or, lastly, from a portion or knuckle of intestine forcing 
its way through an opening in the walls of the abdomen, and then 
called hernia or rupture, which being pressed upon by the edges 
of the opening becomes strangulated, and if not relieved inflames, 
and then mortifies. None of these cases are amenable to treat- 
ment (and indeed they cannot often be discovered with certainty 
during life, the symptoms resembling those of enteritis), except 



CALCULI IN THE 30WELS. 365 

strangulated hernia, which should be reduced either by the pres- 
sure of the bauds, or by the aid of an operation with the knife — 
which will be described under the chapter which treats of the seve- 
ral operations. Whenever inflammation of the bowels is attended 
with obstinate constipation, the walls of the abdomen should be 
carefully examined, and especially the inguinal canal, scrotum, and 
navel, at which points in most cases the hernia makes its appear- 
ance. A swelling at any other part may, however, contain a 
knuckle of intestine, which has found its way through the abdo- 
minal parietes in consequence of a natural opening existing there, 
or of one having been made by some accidental puncture with a 
spike of wood or iron. The swelling is generally round, or nearly 
so, and gives a drum-like sound on being tapped with the fingers. 
It feels hard to the touch in consequence of the contents being 
constricted, but it gives no sensation of solidity, and may be gene- 
rally detected by these signs. None but an educated hand can, 
however, be relied on to distinguish a ventral hernia from any 
other tumor. When it occurs at the scrotum or navel the case is 
clear enough. 

CALCULI IN THE BOWELS. 

A stoppage in the bowels sometimes obstinately persists, in 
spite of all kinds of remedies, and, death taking place, it is found 
on examination that a large calculus has blocked up the area of 
the canal. Sometimes one of these calculi is found in the stomach, 
but this is extremely rare. On making a section they are found 
to consist of concentric layers of bran, chaff, and other hard par- 
ticles of the food, mixed generally with some small proportion of 
earthy matter, and arranged around some foreign body, such as a 
piece of stone from the corn, or the head of a nail. Treatment is 
out of the question, as it is impossible to discover the calculus 
during life, and even if it could be ascertained to exist, no remedy 
is known for it. Those who are curious about the composition of 
these calculi, will be pleased with the following letter by Mr. Buck- 
land, surgeon to the 1st Life Guards, in reply to an inquiry made 
in The Fidel as to the composition of a calculus found in a horse 
belonging to a correspondent : — 

" Mr. C. Pemberton Carter having, in his interesting letter, re- 
quested me to throw some light upon this subject, I have great 
pleasure in giving what little information I am able to afford, with 
apologies for delay, as Aldershot camp is by no means a favorable 
spot for scientific investigations or literary pursuits. As regards 
the actual composition of calculi such as he has sent, we learn 
from the catalogue of the museum of the Royal College of Sur- 
geons that they are composed for the most part of the phosphate 
of magnesia and ammonia, with small quantities of phosphate of 
31* 



366 THE HORSE. 

lime. The}* also contain an animal and extractive matter, to which 
the brown color of the calculus is owing. They also contain mu- 
riates of soda, and various alkaline salts derived from the intestinal 
juices. The animal matter resembles that of all other concretions, 
and separates in concentric laminae when the calculus is dissolved 
in an acid. In more impure varieties, grains of sand, portions of 
hay, straw, &c, are frequently found imbedded in the calculus, 
and there is one specimen in the museum which contains an entire 
layer of vegetable hairs. Mr. Carter remarks that ' his impression 
is that the calculus is made up of bran' (chemically speaking). 
He is not far wrong, for we read in the College catalogue, ' Most 
authorities agree that these calculi are formed from phosphate of 
magnesia, contained in wJieat, oats, hay, &c, and this opinion de- 
rives confirmation from the circumstance that they occur most fre- 
quently in millers' and brewers' horses, whish are fed upon grains, 
bran, and substances known to contain a much larger proportion 
of magnesian salts than other vegetable matters.' Mr. Carter has 
detected minute portions of wheat, oats, and hay in the calculus, 
which therefore may be said to consist of two substances, viz., the 
vegetable and the mineral. So much, then, for the composition 
of the calculus; now for its mechanical structure. Most decidedly 
it may be compared to an onion, layer being packed over layer, so 
as in section to present a ringed appearance. We may also liken 
it to other objects. It has lately struck me to examine the struc- 
ture of a common cricket-ball, which combines hardness, light- 
ness, and elasticity in such an admirable way. Upon making a 
section, I found the cricket-ball to be composed of layers, one over 
the other, round a central nucleus. The layers are composed of 
leather, alternated with a vegetable fibre, the nucleus being a bit 
of cork. The calculus in the horse is formed in a similar way. 
The nucleus in Mr. Carter's specimen is a bit of flint; in a capital 
instance I have in my own collection, of a common shot, about 
No. 5 size, which has been crushed by the horse's teeth, and sub- 
sequently swallowed; in another instance, of a chair nail of brass; 
in another of a single oat-seed ; in another of a minute bit of 
cinder, and so on, as it seems to be absolutely necessary that these 
calculi should have a commencement — a starting-point. Where 
is the school-boy who can make a gigantic snowball without be- 
ginning with a small lump of snow or a stone, as a nucleus upon 
which he builds all the rest ? 

" Mr. Carter seems to wonder at the weight of the specimen, 5 
lbs. ; this is by no means a large size ; in the museum of the 
Royal College of Surgeons we have a very fine collection of cal- 
culi, the largest, taken from the intestines of a horse, weighs no 
less than 17 lbs , and is about the size and shape of an ordinary 
skittle-ball. In the case where this is contained he will see manv 



CALCULI IN THE BOWELS— WORMS. 367 

other specimens, cut in sections to show the nuclei; he will ob- 
serve that calculi also form in the intestines of the camel and of 
the elephant, and even in the wild horse, for there is a good speci- 
men from the intestines of a JapaLese wild horse. Stones, not 
true calculi, are sometimes found in animals, which have been 
actually swallowed by them, and have not been chemically formed 
in this walking laboratory. There is a case containing several 
pebbles — thirty in number — found in the stomach of a cow at 
Barton-under-Needwood, Burton-on-Trent. These stones belong 
to the geological formation of the neighborhood ; it is curious to 
see how they have been acted on by the action of the stomach, for 
they are highly glazed and polished. I have seen specimens of 
gravel pebbles which I took from the gizzard of an ostrich, which 
are as highly polished as an agate marble. The bird swallowed 
the stones to assist its digestion; the cow out of a morbid appe- 
tite. I know of a somewhat similar instance that lately happened : 
A young lady was taken ill, and died of very strange symptoms ; 
it was subsequently ascertained that the stomach was quite filled 
with human hair, which had moulded itself into the shape of the 
interior of that organ. The poor girl had naturally very long and 
beautiful hair, and she had an unfortunate habit of catching the 
loose hairs with her lips and swallowing them ; in time they felted 
together, became a solid mass, and killed her — a warning to other 
young ladies which should not be neglected. In the lower animals 
we frequently find rolled balls of hair from the creatures licking 
themselves. I have seen one at Bristol from a lioness ; it is formed 
of hairs licked with her rough tongue from her cubs. Curious 
concretions are found in goats, &c, called ' bezoar' stones ; they 
were formerly supposed to have medicinal virtues : of this at an- 
other time. F. T. Buckland." 

WORMS. 

Intestinal worms in the horse are chiefly of two species, both 
belonging to the genus ascaris. Bots, as inhabiting the stomach, 
have already been described with that organ ;' and, moreover, they 
should never be confounded with what are called properly and 
scientifically, " worms." Of these, the larger species resembles 
the common earthworm in all respects but color, which is a pinkish 
white. It inhabits the small intestines, though it is sometimes, 
but very rarely, found in the stomach. The symptoms are a rough, 
staring, hollow coat — a craving appetite — more or less emaciation — 
the passage of mucus with the faeces, and very often a small por- 
tion of this remains outside the anus, and dries there. That part 
generally itches, and in the attempt to rub it the tail is denuded 
of hair ; but this may arise from vermin in it, or from mere irri- 
tation of the anus from other causes. When these several symp- 



368 THE HORSE. 

toms are combined, it may with some degree of certainty be sup- 
posed that there are worms in the intestines, but before proceeding 
to dislodge them, it is always the wisest plan to obtain proof posi- 
tive of their existence, by giving an ordinary dose of physic, when, 
on watching the evacuations, one or more worms may generally be 
discovered if they are present. When the case is clearly made 
out the plan of treatment is as follows : — 

Take of Tartar Emetic* 1 drachm. 

Powdered Ginger 5 drachm. 

Linseed Meal sufficient to make into a ball with boiling water. 

One should be given every morning for a week, then a dose of 
physic ; linseed oil being the most proper. Let the stomach rest 
a week; give another course of balls and dose of physic, after 
which let the horse have a drachm of sulphate of iron (powdered) 
twice a day with his feed of corn. 

There is no medicine which is so effectual for removing worms 
in the horse as tartar emetic, and none which is so entirely innocu- 
ous to the stomach. Calomel and spirit of turpentine were formerly 
in use as vermifuges, but they are both dangerous drugs; the 
former, if given for any length of time, causing great derangement 
of the stomach and liver ; and the latter often producing consi- 
derable inflammation after a single dose, if sufficiently large to 
cause the expulsion of the worm-s. Linseed oil given in half-pint 
doses every morning is also an excellent vermifuge, but not equal 
to the tartar emetic. If this quantity does not relax the bowels 
it may be increased until they are rendered slightly more loose 
than usual, but avoiding anything like purgation. 

The smaller species of intestinal worm chiefly inhabits the rec- 
tum, but is occasionally found in the colon and caecum. It pro- 
duces great irritation and uneasiness, but has not the same preju- 
dicial effect on the health as the larger parasite. It is about one 
to two inches in length, and somewhat smaller in diameter than a 
crow quill. These worms are commonly distinguished as ascarides, 
but both this species and the round worm belong to the genus 
afcaris. The term thread worm is more correctly applied, as they 
are not unlike sections of stout thread or cotton. The only symp- 
tom by which their presence can be made out is the rubbing of 
the tail, when if, on examination, no vermin or eruption is found 
in the dock, it may be presumed that worms exist in the rectum. 
The remedy for these worms is by the injection every morning for 
a week of a pint of linseed oil, containing two drachms of spirit of 
turpentine. This will either kill or bring away the worms, with 
the exception of a few which are driven by it higher up into the 

* Omit the Tartar Emetic, and substitute 2 drachms of powdered Sul- 
phate of Iron. — Editor. 



DISEASES OF THE LIVER AND KIDNEYS. 369 

colon, but by waiting a week or ten days (during which time they 
will have re-entered the rectum) and then repeating the process, 
they may generally be entirely expelled. The sulphate of iron 
must be given here, as before described. 

DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 

The liver of the horse is less liable to disease than that of 
any other domestic animal, and the symptoms of its occurrence 
are so obscure that it is seldom until a post-mortem examination 
that a discovery is made of its existence. This unerring guide, 
however, informs us that the liver is sometimes unnaturally en- 
larged and hard, at others softened, and in others again the sub- 
ject of cancerous deposits. It is also attacked by inflammation, 
of which the symptoms are feverishness; rapid pulse, not hard and 
generally fuller than usual ; appetite bad ; restlessness, and the 
patient often looking round to his right side with an anxious ex- 
pression, not indicative of severe pain. Slight tenderness of the 
right side; but this not easily made out satisfactorily. Bowels 
generally confined, but there is sometimes diarrhoea. Very fre- 
quently the whites of the eyes show a tinge of yellow, but any- 
thing like jaundice is unknown. The treatment must consist in 
the use of calomel and opium, with mild purging, thus : — 

Take of Calomel, 

Powdered Opium, of each one drachm. 

Linseed Meal and boiling water enough to make into a ball, 
which should be given night and morning. Every other day 
a pint of Linseed Oil should be administered. 

The diet should if possible be confined to green food, which will do 
more good than medicine ; indeed, in fine weather, a run at grass 
during the day should be preferred to all other remedies, taking 
care to shelter the horse at night in an airy loose-box. 

DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS. 

These oroans are particularly prone to disease, and are subject 
to inflammation ; to diabetes, or profuse staling ; to haematuria, or 
a discharge of blood, and to torpidity, or inaction. 

Inflammation of the kidneys (nephritis) is generally pro- 
duced by an exposure of the loins to wet and cold, as in carriage- 
horses standing about in the rain during the winter season. Some- 
times it follows violent muscular exertion, and is then said to be 
caused by a strain in the back, but in these cases there is probably 
an exposure to cold in a state of exhaustion, or by the rupture of 
a branch of the renal artery or vein, as the inflammation of one 
organ can scarcely be produced by the strain of another. The 
symptoms are a constant desire to void the urine, which is of a 
very dark color — often almost black. Great pain, as evidenced bv 

2a 



370 THE HORSE. 

the expression of countenance and by groans, as well as by frequent 
wistful looks at the loins. On pressing these parts there is some 
tenderness, but not excessive, as in rheumatism. The pulse is 
quick, hard, and full. The attitude of the hind quarters is pecu- 
liar, the horse standing in a straddling position with his back 
arched, and refusing to move without absolute compulsion. It is 
sometimes difficult to distinguish nephritis from inflammation of 
the neck of the bladder, but by attending to the state of the urine, 
which is dark brown or black in the former case, and nearly of a 
natural color in the latter, the one may be diagnosed from the 
other. To make matters still more clear, the oiled hand may be 
passed into the rectum, when in nephritis the bladder will be found 
contracted and empty (the urine being so pungent as to irritate 
that organ), while in inflammation or spasm of its neck, it will be 
distended, often to a large size. The treatment to be adopted must 
be active, as the disease runs a very rapid course, and speedily ends 
in death if negleeted. A large quantity of blood must at once be 
taken. The skin must be acted on energetically, so as to draw the 
blood to its surface, and if a Turkish bath (see page 215) is at 
hand, it will be highly beneficial. If not, the application of hot 
water, as recommended at page 342, may be tried, and in many 
cases it has acted like a charm. Failing the means for carrying 
out either of these remedies, the loins should be rubbed with an 
embrocation consisting of olive oil, liquid ammoniae and laudanum 
in equal parts, but cantharides and turpentine must be carefully 
avoided, as likely to be absorbed, when they would add fuel to the 
fire. A fresh sheepskin should be warmed with hot (not boiling) 
water, and applied over the back, and the liniment should be 
rubbed in profusely every hour, restoring the skin to its place im- 
mediately afterwards. Mustard is sometimes used instead of am- 
monia, and as it is always at hand, it may form a good substitute, 
but it is not nearly so powerful an irritant to the skin as the latter, 
especially when evaporation is prevented by the sheepskin, or by 
a piece of any waterproof article. A mild aperient may be given, 
linseed oil being the best form, but if the bowels continue ob- 
stinate, and it is necessary to repeat it, eight or ten drops of croton 
oil may be added to a pint of the oil, great care being taken to 
assist its action by raking and injection, the latter being also use- 
ful as a fomentation to the kidneys. The diet should consist of 
scalded linseed and bran mashes, no water being allowed without 
containing sufficient linseed tea to make it slightly glutinous, but 
not so much so as to nauseate the patient. If the symptoms are 
not greatly abated in six or eight hours, the bleeding must be re- 
peated, for upon this remedy the chief dependence must be placed. 
A mild and soothing drench, composed of half an ounce of car- 
bonate of soda, dissolved in six ounces of linseed tea, may be given 



DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS. 871 

every six hours, but little reliance can be placed upon it. The 
inflammation either abates after the bleeding, or the horse dies in 
a very few hours. 

Diabetes of late years has been much more frequent than was 
formerly the case, and especially among race-horses and hunters, 
probably owing to the enormous quantities of corn which they are 
allowed in the present day. But whatever may be the cause, the 
symptoms are clear enough, the horse constantly staling and pass- 
ing large quantities of urine each time. The treatment should be 
conducted on the principle that the cause should if possible be 
ascertained and removed. Mowburnt hay will often bring on dia- 
betes, and new oats have a similar tendency in delicate horses. Iu 
any case it is wise to make a total change in the food as far as it 
can possibly be done. Green meat will often check it at once, and 
a bran-mash containing a few carrots has a similar chance of doing 
good. With these alterations in the quality of the food attention 
should also be paid to the quantity of the corn, which should be 
reduced if more than a peck a day has been given, and beans should 
be substituted for a part of the oats. Half a drachm of the sul- 
phate of iron (powdered) should be mixed with each feed (that is, 
four times a day), and the horse should be well clothed and his legs 
warmly bandaged in a cool and airy (but not cold and draughty) 
loose box. By attention to these directions the attack may gener- 
ally be subdued in a few days, but there is always a great tendency 
to its return. Should it persist in spite of the adoption of the 
measures already recommended, the following ball may be tried : — 

Take of Gallic Acid \ drachm. 

Opium 1 drachm. 

Treacle and Linseed Meal enough to make into a ball, which should "be 
given twice a day. 

Hjemattjrea, like diabetes, is easily recognised by the presence 
of blood in greater or less quantities passed with the urine. It is 
not, however, of the bright red color natural to pure blood, but it 
is more or less dingy, and sometimes of a smoky-brown color, as 
occurs in inflammation. Bloody urine, however, may often be 
passed without any sign of that condition, and therefore unaccom- 
panied by pain, or any other urgent symptom. The causes are 
exceedingly various. Sometimes a parasitic worm (Strongyhcs 
gigas) has been discovered, after death from hgematurea, in the 
kidney, and was apparently the cause of the mischief. At others, 
this organ has been found disorganized by cancer or melanosis — 
and again a sharp calculus has been known to bring on consider- 
able bleeding, and this last cause is by no means unfrequent. The 
symptoms are the existence of bloody urine unaccompanied by pain 
or irritation, marking the absence of nephritis. As to treatment, 
little can be done in severe cases, and mild ones only require rest, 



372 THE HORSE. 

a dose of physic, and perhaps the abstraction of three or four 
quarts of blood. Green food should be given, and the diet should 
be attended to as for diabetes. If the urine is scanty, yet evidently 
there is no inflammation, two or three drachms of nitre may be 
given with the mash at night, but this remedy should be employed 
with great caution. 

Inaction op the kidneys is so common in every stable that 
the groom seldom thinks it necessary even to inform his master of 
its occurrence. An ounce of nitre is mixed and given with a bran- 
mash as a matter of course, and sometimes more violent diuretics 
are resorted to, such as powdered resin and turpentine. Very 
often the kidneys are only inactive because the horse has not been 
regularly watered, and in those stables where an unlimited supply 
is allowed this condition is comparatively rare. There is no harm 
in resorting to nitre occasionally, but if it is often found necessary 
to employ this drug, the health is sure to suffer, and an alteration 
in the diet should be tried in preference. At all events, if it ia 
given, the horse should be allowed to drink as much and as often 
as he likes, without which the stimulus to the kidneys will be 
doubly prejudicial, from being in too concentrated a form. 

DISEASES OF THE BLADDEK. 

The bladder is subject to inflammation of its coats or neck- 
to spasm — and to the formation of calculi. 

Inflammation of the bladder (cystitis) is not very common 
excepting when it is produced by irritants of a mechanical or chemi- 
cal nature. Thus, when the kidneys secrete a highly irritating 
urine, the bladder suffers in its passage, and we have the two 
organs inflamed at the same time. Again, when cantharides have 
been given with a view to stimulate exhausted nature, or when 
they are absorbed from the surface of the skin, as sometimes hap- 
pens in blistering, the bladder is liable to become inflamed. The 
symptoms are — a quick pulse — pain in the hind-quarter, evinced 
by the looks of the animal in that direction — and constant strain- 
ing to pass the urine, which is thick and mixed with mucus, or 
in aggravated cases with purulent matter. The treatment to be 
adopted if the case is severe will consist in venesection, back-rak- 
ing, and purgation with linseed or castor oil, avoiding aloes, which 
have a tendency to irritate the bladder. Linseed tea should be 
given as the sole drink, and scalded linseed mixed with a bran- 
mash as food. The following ball may also be given, and repeated 
if necessary : — 

Take of Powdered Opium 1 drachm. 

Tartar emetic H drachm. 

To be aade up into a ball with Linseed Meal and boiling water, and 
given every six hours. 



DISEASES OF THE BLADDER, ETC. 373 

Retention of urine may be due either to inflammation of the 
neck of the bladder, occasioning a spasmodic closure of that part, 
or there may be spasm unattended by inflammation and solely due 
to the irritation of some offending substance, such as a calculus, 
or a small dose of cantharides. The treatment in either case must 
be directed to the spasmodic constriction, which is generally under 
the control of large doses of opium and camphor, that is, from 
one drachm to two drachms of each, repeated every five or six 
hours. If the symptoms are urgent, bleeding may also be resorted 
to, and when the bladder is felt to be greatly distended, no time 
should be lost in evacuating it by means of the catheter, which 
operation, however, should only be intrusted to a regular practi- 
tioner accustomed to its use. 

Calculi in the bladder are formed of several earthy salts, and 
present various forms and appearances, which may be comprised 
under four divisions. 1st. The mulberry calculus, so named from 
its resemblance to a mulberry, possessing generally a nucleus. 2d. 
A very soft kind resembling fuller's earth in appearance, and being 
shiefly composed of phosphate of lime and mucus. 3d. Calculi 
of a white or yellowish color, rough externally and easily friable. 
And 4th. Those which are composed of regular layers, and which 
are harder than the second and third varieties. 

The mulberry calculus, from its extremely rough surface, occa- 
sions more irritation than other forms, but during life it is impos- 
sible to ascertain the exact chemical nature of the calculus which 
may be ascertained to exist. These calculi sometimes attain an 
immense size, weighing several pounds. The symptoms are a dif- 
ficulty of voiding the urine, which generally comes away in jerks 
after great straining and groaning. The horse remains with his 
legs extended for some time afterwards, and evidently indicates 
that he feels as if his bladder was not relieved. Often there is 
muco-purulent matter mixed with the urine, which is rendered 
thick and glutinous thereby, but this only happens in cases of long 
standing. The treatment must be either palliative or curative. If 
the former, it should consist in the adoption of the means employed 
for subduing irritation and inflammation of the bladder which 
have been already described. The cure can only be effected by 
removing the stone. This requires the performance of a difficult 
and dangerous operation (lithotomy), the details of which can be 
only useful to the professed veterinary surgeon, and I shall there- 
fore omit them here. 

DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 

Balanitis, or inflammation of the glans penis {ftdlavoq, glans), 
is very common in the horse, being brought on by the decomposi- 
tion of the natural secretions, when they have been allowed to 
32 



374 THE HORSE. 

collect for any length of time. At first there is merely a slight 
discharge of pus, but in process of time foul sores break out, and 
very often fungous growths spring from them, which block up the 
passage through the opening of the sheath, and cause considerable 
swelling and inconvenience. These are quite distinct from warts, 
which occur in this part just as they do in other situations. The 
treatment requires some skill and experience, because mild reme- 
dies are of no use, and severe ones are not unattended with danger. 
The parts must first of all be well cleansed by syringing, or if the 
end of the penis can be laid hold of, by washing with a sponge. 
The following wash may then be applied, and it should be repeated 
every day : — 

Take of solution of Chloride of Zinc 2 drachms. 

Water 1 pint. Mix. 

If the morbid growths are very extensive, nothing but amputa- 
tion of the penis or the use of corrosive sublimate will remove 
them. Severe hgemorrhage sometimes follows both of these mea- 
sures, but it seldom goes on to a dangerous extent. Still it is 
scarcely advisable for any one but a professional man to undertake 
the operation. 

In the mare the vagina is sometimes inflamed, attended with 
a copious yellow discharge. An injection of the wash mentioned 
in the last paragraph will generally soon set the matter right. At 
first it should be used only of half the strength, gradually increas- 
ing it, until the full quantity of chloride of zinc is employed. 

Inversion of the uterus sometimes follows parturition, but 
it is very rare in the mare. The uterus should be at once replaced, 
using as little force as possible, and taking care before the hand 
is withdrawn, that it really is turned back again from its inverted 
position. 

Nymphomania occurs sometimes in mares at the time of being 
" in use," and goes on to such an extent as to render them abso- 
lutely regardless of pain, for the time being, though not to make them 
lose their consciousness. They will kick and squeal till they be- 
come white with sweat, and no restraint will prevent them from 
trying to continue their violent attempts to destroy everything 
behind them. These symptoms are especially developed in the 
presence of other animals of the same species, whether mares or 
geldings ; but the near proximity of an entire horse will be still 
worse. If placed in a loose box, without any restraint whatever, 
they generally become more calm, and when the state is developed, 
such a plan should always be adopted. It is chiefly among highly- 
fed and lightly- worked mares that the disease is manifested ; and 
a dose of physic with starvation in a loose box, away from any 
other horse, will very soon put an end to it in almost every instance. 



MAD STAGGERS— EPILEPSY. 375 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

Pkrenitis, or Mad Staggers — Epilepsy and Convulsions — Megrims 
— Rabies, Hydrophobia, or Madness — Tetanus, or Lock-jaw — 
Apoplexy and Paralysis — String Halt — Coup de Soleil, or Sun 
stroke. 

PHRENITIS, OR MAD STAGGERS. 

Phrenitis seldom occurs, except in over-fed and lightly-worked 
horses, nor among them is it by any means a common dis- 
ease. The early symptoms are generally those of an ordinary 
cold; there is heaviness of the eyes, with a redness of the con- 
junctiva, and want of appetite. After a day or two occupied by 
these premonitory signs, which will seldom serve to put even the 
most experienced observer on his guard, the horse becomes sud- 
denly delirious, attempting to bite and strike every one who comes 
near him, regardless of the ordinary influences of love and fear. 
He plunges in his stall, attempts to get free from his halter rein, and 
very often succeeds in doing so, when he will stop at nothing to 
gain still further liberty. If unchecked he soon dashes himself to 
pieces, and death puts an end to his struggles. The only treat- 
ment which is of the slightest use is bleeding till the horse abso- 
lutely falls, or till he becomes quite quiet and tractable, if the case 
is only a mild one. Immediately afterwards a large dose of tartar 
emetic (two or three drachms) should be given, followed in an 
hour or two by a strong physic ball ; or, if the case is a very bad 
one, by a drench, containing half a pint of castor oil and six or 
eight drops of croton oil. Clysters and back-raking will of course 
be required, to obviate the risk of hard accumulations in the 
bowels, but where there is great violence, they cannot always be 
employed and the case must take its chance in these respects. 
The diet should be confined to a few mouthfuls of hay or grass, 
with a plentiful supply of water.* 

EPILEPSY AND CONVULSIONS. 

Tiiese diseases, or symptoms of disease, are not often met 
with in the adult, but in the foal they sometimes occur, and are 
not unattended with danger. The young thing will perhaps gallop 
after its dam round and round its paddock, and then all at once stop, 

* No treatment, however well directed, will be of any use. The better 
way will be to shoot the horse at once, before he has a chance of destroying 
the stable and other property within his reach. — Editoe. 



376 THE HORSE. 

stagger, and fall to the ground, where it lies, struggling with more 
or less violence, for a few minutes or longer, and then raises its 
head, stares about it, gets up, and is apparently as well as ever. 
It is generally in the hot days of summer that these attacks occur, 
and it appears highly probable that the direct rays of the sun 
playing on the head have something to do with it. Death seldom 
takes place during the first attack, but sometimes after two or 
three repetitions the convulsions go on increasing, and the foal 
becomes comatose and dies. A mild dose of linseed oil is the only 
remedy which can safely be resorted to, and as it is supposed that 
worms will sometimes produce these convulsive attacks, it is on that 
account to be selected. Epilepsy is so very rarely met with in 
the adult and of its causes and treatment so little is known, that 
I shall not trouble my readers with any account of them.* 

MEGRIMS. 

This term is used to conceal our ignorance of the exact nature 
of several disordered conditions of the brain and heart. In fact, any 
kind of fit, not attended with convulsions, and only lasting a short 
time, is called by this name. The cause may be a fatty condition of 
the heart, by which sudden faintness and sometimes death are pro- 
duced, or it may consist in congestion of the vessels of the brain, 
arising from over work on a hot day, or from the pressure of the 
collar, or from disease of the valves of the heart. Attacks reputed 
to be megrims have been traced to each of these causes, and as in 
every case, the horse, while apparently in good health, staggers 
and falls, and after lying still for a minutes (during which there 
is seldom an opportunity of examining the state of the circulation) 
rises as well as before, there is no chance of distinguishing the one 
from the other. The most usual symptoms are the following : — The 
horse is perhaps trotting along, when all at once he begins shaking 
his head as if the bridle chafed his ears, which are drawn 
back close to the poll. The driver gets down to examine these 
facts, and observes the eyelids quivering, and the nostrils affected 
with a trembling kind of spasm. Sometimes the rest will allow 
of the attack going off, but most frequently, the head is drawn to 
one side, the legs of that half of the body seem to be paralyzed, 
and the horse making a segment of a circle goes down, lies a few 
minutes on the ground, and then rises as if nothing had happened 
beyond a light sweating, and disturbance of the respiration. Treat- 
ment can be of little avail, however, unless a correct diagnosis is 
made, for remedies which would be suited to congestion would be 
prejudicial to a diseased heart. If the attack has happened while 

* Cerebro-spinal meningitis of some New York writers, will be found 
treated of in our note on chapter on " Fevers," article " Typhoid Fever" — 
the so-called choking distemper. — Editor. 



HYDROPHOBIA. 377 

in harness, the collar should always be carefully inspected, and if 
at all tight it should be replaced by a deeper one. A diseased 
state of the valves of the heart ought to be discoverable by 
auscultation, but it requires a practised ear to do this, and the 
directions for ascertaining its presence are beyond' the scope of this 
book. The only plan which can safely be adopted, is to take the 
subject of megrims quietly home to his stable, and carefully ex- 
amine into the condition of all his functions with a view to im- 
prove the action of any organ which appears to be out of order, 
whatever it may be. If all seems to be going on well — if the appe- 
tite is good, and the heart acts with regularity and with due force, 
while the brain seems clear, and the eye is not either dull or suf- 
fused with blood — nothing should be attempted, but the horse 
being subject to a second attack, as proved by manifold experience, 
should be put to work in which no great danger can be appre- 
hended from them. He is not safe in any kind of carriage, for it can 
never be known where the fall will take place ; and as a saddle- 
horse he is still more objectionable, and should therefore be put to 
some commercial purpose, in executing which, if he falls, the only 
injury he can effect is to property, and not to human life. 

BABIES, HYDBOBHOBIA OB MADNESS. 

One reason only can be given for describing this disease, 
which is wholly beyond the reach of art; but as the horse attacked 
by it is most dangerous, the sooner he is destroyed the better ; and 
for this reason, every person who is likely to have any control over 
him, should be aware of the symptoms. As far as is known at 
present, Rabies is not idiopathically developed in the horse, but 
must follow the bite of a rabid individual belonging to one or other 
of the genera cams and felts. The dog, being constantly about our 
stables, is the usual cause of the development of the disease, and 
it may supervene upon the absorption of the salivary virus without 
any malicious bite, as has happened according to more than one 
carefully recorded case. The lips of the horse are liable to be 
ulcerated from the action of the bit, and there is reason to believe 
that in the early stages of rabies these parts have been licked by a 
dog, the saliva has been absorbed, and the inoculation has taken 
place just as it would do from any other wound. It is difficult to 
prove that this is the true explanation of those cases where no bite 
has been known to have occurred, but as the mouth has in each 
instance been shown to have been abraded, there is some reason 
for accepting it as such. To proceed, however, to the symptoms, 
Mr. Youatt, who has had great opportunities for examining rabies, 
both in the dog and horse, describes the earliest as consisting in 
" a spasmodic movement of the upper lip, particularly of the angles 
of the lip. Close following on this, or contemporaneous with it, 
32* 



378 THE HORSE. 

are the depressed and anxious countenance, and inquiring gaze, 
suddenly, however, lighted up, and becoming fierce and menacing 
from some unknown cause, or at the approach of a stranger. From 
time to time different parts of the frame, the eyes, the jaws, par- 
ticular limbs, will be convulsed. The eye will occasionally wander 
after some imaginary object, and the horse will snap again and 
again at that which has no real existence. Then will come the 
irrepressible desire to bite the attendants or the animals within its 
reach. To this will succeed the demolition of the rack, the manger, 
and the whole furniture of the stable, accompanied by the peculiar 
dread of water, which has already been described. Towards the 
close of the disease there is generally paralysis, usually confined to 
the loins and the hinder extremities, or involving those organs 
which derive their nervous influence from this portion of the spinal 
cord ; hence the distressing tenesmus which is occasionally seen." 
How paralysis can produce tenesmus is not very clear, but of the 
very general existence of this symptom there can be no doubt. The 
dread of water, as well as of draughts of cold air, is also clearly 
made out to exist in this disease (as in human rabies), and the 
term hydrophobia will serve to distinguish it better than in the 
dog, where it is as clearly absent. Whenever, therefore, these 
symptoms follow upon the bite of a dog, unless the latter is un- 
questionably in good health, rabies may be suspected, and the bare 
suspicion ought always to lead to the use of the bullet, which is 
the safest way of killing a violent horse. There is only one disease 
(phrenitis) with which it can be confounded, and in that the 
absence of all consciousness and, in milder cases, of fear, so that 
no moral control whatever can be exercised, marks its nature, and 
clearly distinguishes it from rabies, the victim to which is con- 
scious to the last, and though savage and violent in the extreme, 
is aware of the power of man, and to some extent under his 
influence. 

TETANUS— LOCK-JAW. 

Tetanus, one form of which is known as lock-jaw, has its seat 
apparently in the nervous system, but, like mauy other diseases of 
the same class, the traces it leaves behind are extremely uncertain, 
and are displayed more on the secondary organs, through which it 
is manifested, than on those which we believe to be at the root of the 
mischief. Thus the muscles, which have been long kept in a state 
of spasm, show the marks of this condition in their softened and 
apparently rotten condition. They in fact have had no interval 
of rest, during which nutrition could go on, and have lost much 
of the peculiarity of structure which enables them to contract. 
The stomach often shows marks of inflammation, but as all sorts 
of violent remedies are employed, this may be due to them rather 
than to idiopathic disease. The lungs also are generally congested, 



LOCK-JAW. 379 

but here, like the state of the muscles, it may be a secondary effect 
of the long-continued exertions of the -latter, which nothing but 
the absence of all important lesions of the brain and spinal cord 
would induce the pathologist to pay the slightest attention to. 

Tetanus may be either idiopathic or symptomatic, but the 
former condition is somewhat rare. It almost always follows some 
operation, or a severe injury in which a nerve has been implicated, 
the most frequent causes being the piercing of the sole by a nail, 
or a prick in shoeing, or the operations of docking, nicking, castra- 
tion, &c. 

The symptoms are a permanent rigidity of certain voluntary 
muscles, and especially of the lower jaw (whence the popular 
name, lock-jaw). The mouth is kept rigidly shut, the masseter 
muscles feeling as hard as a deal board. One or both sides of the 
neck are rigid, in the former case the head being turned to one 
side, and in the latter stretched out as if carved in marble. The 
nostrils are dilated; the eyes retracted, with the haws thrust for- 
ward over them; the ears erect and stiff, and the countenance as 
if horror-struck. At first the extremities are seldom involved, 
but as the disease progresses their control is first lost, and then 
they become rigid, like the neck and head. The patient is scarcely 
able to stand, and plants his feet widely apart to prop himself up, 
while at last the tail also becomes a fixture. The pulse varies a 
good deal, in some cases being quick, small, and hard, and in 
others slow and labored. The bowels are generally costive, and 
the urine scanty; but this last symptom is not so well marked as 
the state of the bowels alluded to. The treatment should be of a 
two-fold nature, partly palliative and partly curative. Since the 
introduction into use of chloroform we have possessed a drug which 
invariably enables us to remove the spasm for a time, and if it 
does nothing more, it gives room for other remedies to act and 
relieve the patient from the horrible tortures which are occasioned 
by the spasm, while it also allows the muscular and nervous powers 
to be recruited. When, therefore, a case of tetanus occurs in a 
horse of any value, an apparatus for applying chloroform (described 
under the chapter on Operations) should be procured, and the 
animal at once placed under its influence. This done, the whole 
length of the spine should be blistered with tincture of cantharides, 
and an active aperient should be given, consisting, if practicable, 
of a pint of castor oil, and six or eight drops of croton oil. This 
may be pumped down the throat by the usual syringe and tube, 
if the front teeth can be separated; but if this cannot be done, 
some solid cathartic must be selected, though there is often as 
much difficulty in forcing a ball down as in passing an elastic tube. 
Failing in either of these, two drachms of calomel, and the same 
quantity of tartar emetic should be slightly damped, and placed in 



380 THE HORSE. 

the mouth as far back as possible, in the hope that they may be 
gradually swallowed ; the bowels should be raked, and copious 
injections of castor oil and turpentine, mixed with several quarts 
of gruel, should be thrown up. If these remedies fail, nature must 
be left to her own resources, and they will sometimes be found 
equal to the task, for many cases have recovered after having been 
given up as beyond the reach of our art. Opium, henbane, 
digitalis, hellebore, and a host of other drugs have been tried, 
sometimes with, and sometimes without success, and perhaps it is 
worth while, after the bowels have been well relieved, to give a 
full dose of one or other of these powerful remedies, such as two 
drachms of solid opium ; but I confess that I think little reliance 
is to be placed on them, and I prefer the adoption of chloroform 
every six hours, continued for about two or three hours and gra- 
dually withdrawn, leaving the cure to the action of the blister and 
purgatives.* 

APOPLEXY AND PARALYSIS. 

Usually these are only different degrees of the same disease, 
but there are exceptions in which the latter is produced by some 
chronic affection of the spinal cord or brain. As a rule both de- 
pend upon pressure made on the brain by an overloaded state of 
the vessels, commonly known as congestion, or by extravasation 
of blood, in which it escapes from them. 

Apoplexy, known among writers of the old school as sleepy 
staggers, is not often met with in the present day, owing to the 
improvement in the management of our stables, and specially to 
their better ventilation. It is marked by great sleepiness, from 
which the horse can be with difficulty roused, soon going on to 
absolute unconsciousness, attended by a slow snoring respiration, 
and speedily followed by death. The only treatment likely to be 
successful is copious bleeding, purgation, and blisters to the head 
and neck. 

Paralysis is marked by a loss of power over the muscles of a 
part, and may be confined to one limb or organ or extend to more. 
It is a symptom of pressure on, or disorganization of, some part of 
the nervous system, and must be considered as such, and not as a 
disease of the affected muscles. Thus it requires a knowledge- of 
anatomy to trace it to its seat, without which its treatment would 
be conducted on false principles. By far the most common form 
of paralysis is hemiplegia, or paralysis of the muscles of the hinder 
extremities and loins, generally arising from an injury to the spine. 

* The greatest success met with in curing lock-jaw is by the administra- 
tion of 30 drops of dilute prussic acid, of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, night 
and morning, keeping the horse in a quiet place. In violent cases the 
chloroform spoken of in the text will be of advantage. — Editor. 



PARALYSIS— STRING HALT. 381 

Sometimes the body of a vertebra is broken, and the parts being 
separated, their edges press upon the spinal cord and produce the 
disease. At others the vessels within the canal have received a 
shock, and the serous membrane secretes (or allows to ooze out) 
a bloody fluid which presses upon the cord, and produces the same 
effect but in a more gradual manner. In India, a disease known 
there as Kumree causes paralysis of the hinder extremities, and is 
due to inflammation of the membranes, which secrete a bloody 
serum. In this country, however, paraplegia is very rare except- 
ing as the result of accident. 

When a horse falls in hunting, and never moves his hind 
legs afterwards, but lies with his fore legs in the position to get 
up, groaning and expressing great pain and distress, it may be 
concluded that he has fractured or dislocated his spine and that 
the case is hopeless. Sometimes, however, after lying for a few 
seconds, he slowly and with difficulty rises and is led to a stable, 
but after two or three hours lies down and cannot be got up again. 
Here there will be some difficulty in ascertaining whether the mis- 
chief is confined to a strain of the muscles or is situated within 
the vertebral canal. If the former is the case the pain is extreme, 
and generally there will be some quivering or slight spasm of one 
or more of the muscles of the hinder extremity, which feel natu- 
rally firm, while in paralysis they feel soft and are as quiet as they 
would be after death. By attention to these signs the two cases 
may be distinguished, but when the case is made out to be true 
paralysis the treatment is not likely (even if successful in preserv- 
ing life) to bring about a useful restoration to healthy action. In 
valuable horses an attempt may be made by bleeding, physicking 
and blistering, to produce an absorption of the effused serum or 
blood, but the recovered animal is seldom worth the outlay, and 
too often as soon as he is put to any kind of work is subject to a 
relapse.* The most humane and certainly the most economical 
plan is to put him out of his misery at once by a pistol ball or 
knife, but if it is determined to try what can be done towards 
effecting a cure, no better means can be adopted than those I have 
alluded to. 

STRING HALT. 

This is a peculiar snatching up of the hind leg, and is 
supposed to depend upon some obscure disease of the sciatic nerve. 
It however is very doubtful whether this explanation is well 
founded, and there is evidence that in some cases the hock itself 
has been affected. The extensor pedis seems to be the muscle 
most severely implicated, though not the only one which is thrown 

* Use instead, 30 drops of the tincture of nux vomica three times daily, 
tnrn the horse from side to side twice in the day to prevent scalding of the 
skin, and rub -well over the loins. — Editor. 



382 THE HORSE. 

into spasmodic action. No treatment is of the slightest avail. 
Horses with string halt are able to do any kind of work, but it is 
considered to be a form, of unsoundness.* 

[SUNSTROKE— COUP DE SOLEIL. 

This disease of late years has become of so frequent occur- 
rence, that although not mentioned by previous veterinary writers, it 
demands a notice from us. The chief symptoms are exhaustion 
and stupidity, the animal usually falling to the ground and being 
unable to go further. 

To prevent it, allow the horse at short intervals a few mouth- 
fuls of water, and fasten a wet sponge over the forehead. The 
sun-shades now used by extensive owners of horses, will go very 
far in lessening the occurrence of this affection. 

The following treatment, when attended to at once, in the majority 
of cases will prove effectual. 

First. Kemove the horse from the harness to a cool shady 
place. Second. Give two ounces of sulphuric ether ; 20 drops of the 
tincture of aconite root and a bottle of ale or porter as a drench to 
sustain the vital powers, and to act as a powerful stimulant in 
equalizing the circulation throughout the body ; whilst, Thirdly. 
Chopped ice is to be placed in a coarse towel, cloth or bag, and 
laid between the ears and over the forehead, secured in any way 
the ingenuity of the person in charge may suggest. If the legs 
be cold, bandages will be of advantage. Do not put the horse to 
work again until he is completely restored. Dumbness is the 
usual result of sun-stroke — a species of coma — for which there is 
no cure. Horses so affected are of little use in warm weather, but 
are useful in winter. — Editor.] 

* This affection is generally observed in well-bred horses of a highly 
nervous temperament, and is noticed when the horse is about starting ; much 
difficulty being experienced before the animal gets fairly down to his work. 
Once under way the peculiarity entirely disappears, but returns when another 
start is to be made. It rarely, if ever, disqualifies the animal for any kind 
of work., except where he is liable to be suddenly called upon for any unusual 
exercise of power or speed. 

The Editor, in his previous work on the " Diseases in the American 
Stable, Field, and Farm Yard," says : " The causes are twofold. First. 
The loss of nervous influence, whereby the extensor-pedis muscle is deprived 
of its power. Second. The peculiar anatomical articulation and general 
structure of the hock -joint of the horse are such, that when the leg of a dead 
horse is stripped of its muscles the ligaments are not disturbed at all ; and if 
the leg, above and below the hock, be caught hold of by the hands, and the 
leg straightened out, the moment the hands are taken from it, will spring 
into a bent position on the instant, thus imitating string halt, as near as can 
be. Thus the balance of power is not equal ; the articulary ligaments of the 
hock-joint are stronger than the muscles of the thigh. Hence, the moment 
the horse lifts his foot from the ground the leg is instantaneously snatched 
up by the power of the ligaments." — Editor. 



INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE. 383 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

DISEASES AND INJURIES OP CERTAIN SPECIAL ORGANS. 

Diseases of the Ear — Inflammation of the Eye — Cataract — Amau- 
rosis — Buck-eye — Surfeit — Hidebound — Mange — Lice — Mal- 
lenders and Sallenders — Warbles, St fasts and Harness- Galls — 
Grubs — Bites and Stings of Insects — Swelled Legs — Chapped 
Heels — Grease and Scratches — Warts — Corns — Sander ack — 
False Quarter — Ouittor — Thrush — Canker — Laminitis — Seedy 
Toe — Contraction of the Foot — Navicular Disease — Accidents 
to the Legs and Feet. 

DISEASES OF THE EAR. 

Deafness is sometimes met with in the horse, but I know of no 
symptoms by which its precise nature can be made out; and with- 
out ascertaining the seat of the disease, it is useless to attempt to 
treat it. 

Sometimes prom a blow on the external ear inflammation is 
set up, and an abscess forms ; but all that is necessary is to open it, 
so that the matter can readily flow out as fast as it forms, without 
which precaution it will not readily heal. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE. 

This important organ is subject to three forms of inflamma- 
tion, to opacity of the lens, and to paralysis ; of the nerve, called 
amaurosis. 

Simple inflammation is the most common of all the diseases 
to which the horse's eye is subject, and it precedes most of the 
others. It is always the result of any injury of this part, or of 
cold ; and it shows itself if there is a tendency to inflammation 
of this organ, whenever the horse is in a state of plethora. The 
symptoms are an intolerance of light, so that the eye is kept half 
closed, by which it looks smaller than the other ; a gummy secre- 
tion glues the lids together at the angles ; the eyelids are slightly 
swollen, showing a distended state of their veins; and there is 
more or less watering or overflowing of tears. When the lids are 
separated, their internal surface looks more red than natural, and 
the white of the eye is covered with a net-work of fine red ves- 
sels. After the second day the transparent cornea loses its clear- 
ness, and becomes muddy, sometimes over the whole surface, and 
at others in specks. If the disease is allowed to go on unchecked, 
the cornea is involved, and the lining membrane of the aqueous 
humor follows ; a secretion of pus takes place into the chamber, 
or the cornea ulcerates, and the contents of the eye escape. The 



384 THE HORSE. 

treatment should be a copious bleeding from tbe jugular vein, fol- 
lowed by a ball, such as — 

Take of Common Physic Ball 2 drachms. 

Tartar Emetic 1 drachm. 

Mix and give every six hours. 

This not only acts on the intestines, but it keeps up a constant 
nausea, and so tends to lower the action of the heart. The eye 
should be bathed with warm water frequently; and, if the mischief 
be severe, a seton should at once be put into the skin covering the 
upper jaw, about two inches below the eye. On the next day, if 
" the white" still looks red, the bleeding must be repeated ; and, 
if the bowels are much moved, the tartar emetic may be continued 
without the aloes, while if they are obstinate, the dose of the lat- 
ter may be increased. When the acute symptoms have somewhat 
diminished, a camel's-hair brush may be dipped in wine of opium, 
and the eye gently touched with it daily, which will generally com- 
plete the cure. The diet must be low, corn being forbidden en- 
tirely, and the stable should be kept very cool and airy.* 

Purulent ophthalmia is confined to the conjunctiva, and it 
may be recognised by the profuse discharge of purulent fluid 
which takes place. The eyelids are much swollen, and the white 
of the eye is covered with a puffy red membrane, which rises up 
above the level of the cornea, sometimes in fungoid excrescences. 
This form of inflammation is generally epidemic, and sometimea 
runs through a stable without a single exception. The treatment 
should be, at first, similar to that recommended for simple inflam- 
mation ; but when it reaches the chronic stage, a more powerful 
stimulus is required to restore the vessels to a healthy condition. 
A wash composed as follows, must therefore be applied : — 

Take of Nitrate of Silver 6 grs. 

Distilled Water 1 oz. 

Mix, and drop a little into the eye from a quill daily. 

Iritis, or inflammation of the iris, generally known as specific 
ophthalmia, is the most formidable of all the diseases to which the 
eye is subject, and, if not checked, rapidly disorganizes it; while 
it also, even when running an unusually favorable course, is very 
apt to produce opacity of the lens or its capsule (cataract). This 
pest of the stable is, undoubtedly, often brought on by over stimu- 
lation, first of the whole body, through the food, and secondly, of 
the eyes themselves, through the foul emanations from the accu- 

* The treatment recommended in the text is certainly, to say the least, 
injudicious, heroic, and unsound. Apply cold water cloths to the eye for a 
day or two, then use, rain-water 4 ounces, nitrate of silver 12 grains, and 
apply twice daily with camel's hair pencil or hrush. Allow green or soft 
feed. — Editor. 



DISEASES OF THE EYE. 385 

mulated urine and dung. But these would produce no suth effect 
in a horse, unless he were predisposed to ophthalmia; and we find 
that cattle and sheep are often fed to an enormous degree of obe- 
sity, in far closer and worse ventilated stalls, without any prejudi- 
cial effect upon their eyes. It may, then, be assumed, that these 
organs in a horse have a tendency to put on inflammation ; but 
though these words are true they explain nothing of the real cause, 
and only serve to conceal our ignorance of it. There is another 
question bearing upon this subject, which is of the highest import- 
ance. Is the stock of blind horses more liable to blindness than 
that of sound ones ? This has been discussed so often, that it is 
scarcely possible to throw any fresh light upon it, chiefly because 
.t is so difficult to rely upon the facts adduced pro and con. Blind- 
ness is often the result of accident, and such cases are believed to be 
exceptional, and not at all likely to hand down the disease ; but, on 
the contrary, I am inclined to believe that many of them show n 
marked tendency to its development; for an accident never destroys 
both eyes, and when one follows the other, it is a pretty sure sign that 
there is a tendency to ophthalmia. On the whole, it may, I think, be 
assumed, that the tendency to specific ophthalmia is handed down 
from generation to generation, and, consequently, that the offspring 
of a horse who has gone blind from that cause is peculiarly prone 
to it. Its symptoms appear very rapidly, the eye having been 
quite right over night, looks contracted and almost closed next 
morning, and on inspecting it closely " the white" looks of a deep 
red, the cornea looks muddy, and the colored part of the eye (the 
iris) has lost its bright color, and often shows one or two white specks 
upon it (these must not be confounded with specks on the cornea). 
As the disease advances, the intolerance of light is very great, the 
cornea and iris become gradually more muddy, and either lymph 
is thrown out on the latter in the shape of white patches, or pus 
is secreted and fills the chamber of the aqueous humor, in part or 
wholly. If the treatment is sufficiently energetic, these signs 
abate, the pus or lymph is absorbed, and the eye recovers its trans- 
parency ; but there are generally some traces left behind. Bleed- 
ing (either from the jugular or the angular veins of the face), 
moderate purging, and a seton, are the remedies best calculated to 
effect this object, conjoined with an airy stable and a light diet. 
Unfortunately, however, iritis is almost sure to return on the 
restoration of the usual food, and exposure to the elements ; and 
hence it is of the utmost consequence in purchasing a horse to 
examine his eyes for the marks left behind by it. If the case is 
hopeless, it becomes a question whether or not it will be wise to 
put an end to the inflammation by destroying the affected eye, for 
it is well known that if it goes on for any length of time the other, 
sound eye, becomes affected. The only difficulty consists in fcel- 
33 2p 



386 THE HORSE. 

ing assured that there is really no chance of recovery ; fct* when 
once the eye is finally condemned, the sooner it is opened and its 
contents evacuated, the sooner will the horse return to his work, and 
the more chance has the other eye of escaping. The operation is 
very simple, and merely requires a sharp-pointed knife to be passed 
into the anterior chamber from one edge of the cornea, and driven 
back till it cuts into the lens, when it is to be brought out on the 
other side of the cornea, and the whole of the humors will escape 
on making pressure upon the upper eyelid. 

In injuries of the eye, fomentation with warm water should 
be carried on for half an hour, and then omitted for three or four 
hours ; after which it may be repeated again and again, at similar 
intervals. Great care should be taken to remove any extraneous 
bodies, such as particles of dust, &c. 

Cataract, or opacity of the lens, is very commonly the result 
of iritis, its capsule having been coated with a layer of white lymph, 
deposited by the inflamed vessels ; but it also sometimes makes its 
appearance without being preceded by any of the signs of inflam- 
mation. In the former case, the early symptoms are those of iritis; 
but in the latter, the opacity often goes on increasing, without the 
owner of the horse, or his groom, having his attention drawn to 
the eyes, until he finds that he is nearly blind. This progress is 
generally marked by the development of an unusual timidity ; the 
previously-bold animal is alarmed at objects advancing on the road, 
and covered carts and wagons, of which he formerly took no notice, 
occasion him to shy in the most timid manner. On examining his 
eyes carefully, instead of the beautifully clear pupil, with the re- 
flection of tapetum lucidum shining through it, there is seen either 
a mass of dull white, generally more opaque in the centre, or an 
appearance of mottled, semi-transparent soap, or, lastly, one or two 
distinct white spots, not quite circular, but with irregular edges. 
In confirmed cataract, the white pupil can been seen at any dis- 
tance; but in the very early stage, only a practised eye can detect 
the opacity, which, however, is so manifest to him that he wonders 
it is not visible to every one else. The reason of this difficulty of 
detecting the alteration of structure seems to be, that inexperienced 
examiners look at the eye in such a manner that they are confused 
by the reflection on it of their own faces, hiding all beneath. If, 
however, they will turn their heads a little more on one side, this 
will disappear, and they cannot fail to perceive the disease. When 
cataract is clearly proved to exist, all idea of treatment may be 
abandoned, as nothing but an operation can procure a removal of 
the opacity ; and that would leave the horse in a more useless con- 
dition than before, since he could see nothing clearly, and would 
only be subject to continual alarms. In the human being, the 
operation is performed with great success, because the lens which 



AMAUROSIS— BUCK EYE. 387 

is sacrificed can be replaced externally by means of convex glasses ; 
but in the horse, nothing of the kind can be done. Hence, it is 
useless to dream of effecting any improvement in this disease ; and 
if both eyes are the subject of cataract, the horse is incurably 
blind. But supposing there is a cataract in one eye only, is the 
other sure to go blind, or may a reasonable hope be entertained of 
its remaining sound ? Here the history of the disease must be 
examined before any opinion can be formed. If the opacity fol- 
lowed an accident, there is no reason for concluding that the other 
eye will become diseased ; but if it came on idiopathically, either 
preceded by inflammation or otherwise, there is great risk of a 
repetition in the sound eye. Nevertheless, instances are common 
enough of one eye going blind from cataract, while the other re- 
mains sound to the end of life ; and those are still more frequent 
in which the one sound eye continues so for six or seven years. 

AMAUROSIS. 

This is A palsy of the nervous expansion called the retina, 
produced by some disease, either functional or organic, of the optic 
nerve, which is generally beyond the reach of our senses, in ex- 
amining it after death. The symptoms are a full dilatation of the 
pupil, so that the iris is shrunk to a thin band around it, and is so 
insensible to the stimulus of light, in confirmed cases, that, even 
when the eye is exposed to the direct rays of the sun, it does not 
contract. In the early stages, this insensibility is only partial ; and 
though there is such complete blindness that the horse cannot dis- 
tinguish the nature of surrounding objects, yet the pupil contracts 
slightly, and the inexperienced examiner might pass the eye as a 
sound one. The unnaturally large pupil, however, should always 
create suspicion; and when, on closing the lids and re-opening 
them in a strong light, there is little or no variation in its size, the 
nature of the disease is at once made apparent. The treatment of 
amaurosis must depend upon the extent to which it has gone, and 
its duration. If recent, bleeding and a seton in close proximity 
to the diseased organ will be the most likely to restore it. Some- 
times the disease depends upon a disordered condition of the sto- 
mach, and then a run at grass will be the most likely means to 
restore both the affected organs to a sound state. Generally, how- 
ever, an amaurotic eye in the horse may be considered as a hope- 
less case. 

BUCK EYE. 

A buck eye is, strictly, rather a congenital malformation than a 
disease ; but practically, in reference to the utility of the animal, 
it matters little. It depends upon an excess of convexity in the 
cornea, by which the focus of the eye is shortened too much, the 
image being thus rendered indistinct as it falls on the retina. No 
treatment can be of the slightest use. 



388 THE HORSE. 



SURFEIT. 



An eruption of the skin, which shows itself in the form of 
numerous small scabs, matting the hair, and chiefly met with on 
the loins and quarters, is known by this name. Doubtless, it has 
been supposed to arise from an excess of food, causing indigestion; 
but it often comes on in horses which, apparently, are quite free 
from that disorder. The most common cause appears to be, sweat- 
ing the horse when he is in a gross or plethoric condition, and then 
exposing him to a chill. Colts are very subject to surfeit while 
being broken, as are horses fresh from grass during the summer, 
when they are usually over-fat, and require great care in reducing 
this plethoric condition. The usual course of the eruption is for 
the scabs to dry and gradually loosen, when the hair of the part is 
slightly thinned by being pulled out in dressing, a fresh crop of 
pustules forming, and, to the casual observer, keeping up the ap- 
pearance of a permanent state of the original scabs. Surfeit is 
not confined to gross horses, as it sometimes makes its appearance 
in those which are low in condition, exhibiting the same appear- 
ance to the eye; but, on examination, the secretion from the skin 
will be found to be thinner, and of a more purulent nature. The 
treatment must greatly depend upon the state of the general health. 
If the horse is very gross, it may be desirable to take a little blood 
away ; but this will seldom be necessary, and never is desirable. 
Physic seems to do little immediate good ; and, indeed, it is very 
doubtful whether any treatment is of much service, excepting such 
as will gradually bring the horse into working condition. The 
disease, in most cases, has its origin in obstruction of the seba- 
ceous and perspiratory pores ; and until these are restored to their 
proper functions, by gradually exercising them, little good can be 
done. Unfortunately, the very means which will accomplish this 
object are apt to increase the disease for a time; but still this 
must be put up with, as a matter in which no choice can be made. 
Regular exercise and grooming must be fully attended to, using 
the whisp only in dressing the skin, when the eruption shows 
itself, and carefully avoiding the brush and currycomb. By acting 
on the kidneys, more good will be done than by purging physic, 
which seems to be of little or no service in any case but when the 
stomach is greatly out of order. An ounce of nitre may be given 
with a mash twice a week, or the following balls may be ad- 
ministered : — 

Take of Nitn, 

Su'phur, of each 3 drachms. 

Sulphuret of Antimony 2 drachms. 

Linseed Meal and Water enough to form two balls. 



HIDEBOUND— MANGE. 389 

HIDEBOUND. 

This is essentially a disorder of the skin produced by sym- 
pathy with the stomach. It rarely occurs in any horse but one 
sadly out of health from a deficiency either in the quantity or 
quality of the food. Sometimes it comes on in the latter stages of 
consumption or dysentery, without any previous mismanagement ; 
but in the vast majority of cases the cause may be laid to the 
food. The skin of a horse in health feels supple, and on his sides 
it may readily be gathered up by the hand into a large fold, but 
in hidebound it is as if it were glued to the ribs, and were also too 
tight for the carcase which it invests. The name, indeed, is 
expressive of this state, and the disease can scarcely be mistaken 
when once seen, or rather felt. Coincident with this condition of 
the skin, there is also, generally, either a distended state of the 
abdomen from flatulence, or a contracted and " tucked up" appear- 
ance from diarrhoea. The treatment should be addressed to the 
digestive organs, the state of which must be carefully examined, 
and if possible rectified. A pint of linseed, scalded, and mixed 
with a bran mash every night, or scalded malt given in equal 
quantities with the corn ; or in the spring time, vetches, clover, or 
lucerne, will do more than any medicine ; but when there is a 
deficient appetite, or the bowels or stomach, or either 1 of them, 
are evidently much weakened and disordered, a stomachic ball 
once or twice a week will do good. The remedies appropriate to 
these several conditions will be found under their respective heads 
at pages 354, and 363, 364. 

MANGE. 

Mange corresponds with the itch of the human subject in 
being produced by a parasitic insect, which is an acarus, but of a 
different species to that of man, and of a much larger size, so as to 
be readily visible to the naked eye. It is generally produced by 
contact with horses previously affected with the same disease, but 
it appears highly probable that a poor, half-starved animal, allowed 
to accumulate all kinds of dirt on his'skin, will develop the para- 
site, though how this is done is not clearly made out. The whole 
subject of parasites is wrapped in mystery, which modern researches 
appear likely to fathom, but hitherto little progress has been made 
except in the history of the metamorphoses of the tape-worm, 
from the analogy of which some idea may be formed of the prob- 
able modes of production of other parasites. When caused by 
contagion, as certainly happens in the vast majority of cases, the 
first symptoms noticed will be an excessive itching of the skin, 
which is soon followed by a bareness of the hair in patches, partly 
caused by constant friction. The disease usually shows itself on 
33* 



390 THE HORSE. 

the side of the neck, just at the edges of the mane, and on the 
insides cf the quarters near the root of the tail. From these 
parts the eruption extends along the back and down the sides, 
seldom involving the extremities excepting in very confirmed 
cases. After a time 5 the hair almost entirely falls off, leaving the 
skin at first bare aiid smooth, -with a few small red pimples scat- 
tered over it, each of which contains an acarus, and these are con- 
nected by furrows, along which the acari have worked their way 
to their present habitation. In process of time the pimples 
increase in number and size, and from them a matter exudes 
which hardens into a scab, beneath which, on examination, 
several aeari may readily be seen, moving their legs like mites in 
a cheese, to which they are closely allied. At first the mangy 
horse may keep his health, but after a time the constant irritation 
makes him feverish ; he loses flesh, and becomes a most miserable 
object; but such cases of neglect are happily rare in the present 
day. The treatment must be addressed to the destruction of the 
life of the acarus, which, as in the human subject, is rapidly 
destroyed by sulphur, turpentine, arsenic, hellebore, and corrosive 
sublimate. Some of these drugs are, however, objectionable, 
from being poisonous to the horse, as well as to the parasite which 
preys upon him, and they are, therefore, not to be employed 
without great and urgent necessity, in consequence of the failure 
of milder remedies.* The following recipes may be relied on as 
perfectly efficacious, the former being sufficient in mild cases, and 
the latter being strong enough in any. 

1 . Take of Common Sulphur 6 oz. 

Sperm or Train Oil .... 1 pint. 
Spirit of Turpentine .... 3 oz. 
Mix and rub well into the skin with a flannel, or in preference with a 
painter's brush. 

2. Take of Compound Sulphur Ointment . . 8 oz. 

Train or Sperm Oil 1 pint. 

Spirit of Turpentine 3 oz. 

Mix and use as above. 

One or other of the above dressings should be well rubbed in 
every third day for at least three or four weeks in bad cases, and 
two in trifling ones, when the inflammation resulting from the 

* Take a floor cloth, damp the face of it with soap and water, dip it in 
fine sea sand and give the mangy parts a good scrubbing to expose the 
acari, wash off dry, and apply hepar sulph. one ounce, cold water two pints. 
Sulphurous acid gas is a certain remedy for this and other skin diseases 
and is used as follows : — Place one ounce of roll sulphur on hot coals in a 
chafer and place it where the horse is. Close all the doors and windows but 
the one the animal is to stand opposite to. Continue the fumigation for an 
.iour or so. — Editor. 



MANGE— LICE— MALLENDERS, ETC. 391 

acan and also from the application may be allowed to subside in 
the hope that all the parasites are killed, in which case the erup- 
tion disappears, but the hair does not always come on again as 
thickly as ever. All the stable fittings around the stall or box in 
which the horse has been standing should be thoroughly washed 
over with a solution of corrosive sublimate, made as follows : — 

Take of Corrosive Sublimate 1 oz. 

Methylated Spirit of Wine . . . 6 oz. 

Water 1 gallon. 

Dissolve the sublimate in the spirit by rubbing in a mortar, then mix with 
the water, and use with a brush, stirring it up continually to prevent its 
settling. 

The clothing should be destroyed, as it is scarcely possible to 
cleanse it completely from the parasites ; but if it is determined to 
risk a return of the disease, it should be thoroughly washed, and 
when dry, saturated with spirit of turpentine. 

When the health has suffered from the irritation of mange, a 
few tonic balls may be required, but generally the removal of the 
cause will be sufficient. 

LICE. 

In former days lice were not uncommon in the horse, but 
they are now comparatively rare. Still they are occasionally met 
with, and their presence is readily ascertained, being of a consi- 
derable size, and easily seen with the naked eye. They may be 
destroyed by rubbing into the roots of the hair white precipitate, 
in powder, taking care to avoid sweating the horse or wetting his 
skin for some days afterwards. 

MALLENDERS AND SALLENDERS. 

These eruptions are both of the same nature, differing only 
in the locality where they are displayed. The former shows itself 
in the flexure at the back of the knee, and the latter at the bend 
of the hock. The symptoms are shown in the appearance of a foul 
scurf mixed with a few thin scabs, the skin underneath being stiff 
and unyielding. They are generally brought on by washing the 
legs and leaving them undried. The treatment required is merely 
the application of the following ointnwnt, which should be well 
rubbed in every night : — 

Take of Cerate of Superacetate of Lead . 2 oz. 

Creosote 10 drops. Mix. 

If the skin continues to be very hard and stiff, a little glycerine 
should be brushed on two or three times a week. 

WARBLES, SITFASTS, AND HARNESS GALLS. 
When the sai dle has galled the skin beneath it, the in- 



392 THE HORSE. 

flammation resulting is called a " warble," and if this is neglected, 
so as to cause a troublesome sore, the term "sitfast" is applied. 
The effect produced is similar to a harness gall, and there is not 
the slightest necessity for inventing names to distinguish each stage 
of cruelty in the rider, for if attention is paid to tbe warble no sit- 
fast will ever make its appearance. Prevention is better than cure, 
and it may almost always be effected by the adoption of the plan 
of always keeping the saddle on (after loosing the girths) for a 
quarter of an hour or twenty minutes. Sometimes, however, in 
spite of this precaution, the skin of the back swells, and when a 
heavy man has been riding for six or eight hours on a horse unac- 
customed to his weight, the cuticle will perhaps peel off, bringing 
the hair with it. When the swelling is considerable it should be 
well fomented for an hour, and then bathed with a lotion composed 
of one drachm of tincture of arnica in half a pint of water. The 
saddle should never be re-applied until the skin is quite cool and 
free from all inflammation, even if considerable inconvenience is 
thereby suffered. The same treatment will also apply to harness 
galls. Oiling the inside of the collar will often prevent the shoulder 
from suffering excoriation. 

GRUBS. 

The larva op some beetle, but of what species I do not 
know, is occasionally met with in the horse, causing a small lump, 
about the size of a raisin, and usually on the back. This obsti- 
nately continues for months, if its nature is not understood, in 
spite of all ordinary applications. At last a white larva or grub, 
with a black head, and very similar in everything but size to the 
maggot found in the nut, makes its appearance, and either escapes 
to fall on the ground and become a chrysalis, or else it is squeezed 
out by the groom, which is easily done as soon as the head is visi- 
ble. When discovered previously, an opening may be made with 
the point of a penknife, and then the larva may be gradually 
squeezed out, avoiding too much haste in the operation, which will 
only retard the process. 

BITES AND STINGS OF INSECTS. 

Horses are liable to be stung by hornets, wasps, and bees. 
If there are only one or two stings made, no interference is neces- 
sary; but sometimes a larger number of poisonous punctures have 
been effected, and then the best treatment is the application of 
spirit of turpentine and laudanum in equal proportions. 

The bites of the gadfly are so troublesome in their effects 
that it is sometimes desirable to prevent them if possible. This is 
effected by making a strong infusion of the green bark of the elder, 
and washing the flanks, &c, with it before going out. 



SWELLED LEGS. 393 

SWELLED LEGS. 

The skin of the legs and the cellular membrane be- 
neath it are liable to two kinds of swelling, one of which is of an 
inflammatory character, while the other is solely due to a deposit of 
serum (oedema), owing to the non-performance of their office by 
the kidneys. Both kinds are much more frequent in the hind legs 
than the fore, but especially the former. 

Inflammatory swelled leg, sometimes called weed, is gene- 
rally accompanied by a certain amount of feverishness, and comes 
on suddenly, almost always showing itself on the inside of the hind 
leg, which is hot and extremely tender. It is not a very common 
disease, and merely requires the ordinary low treatment, by purging 
physic, and, if necessary, bleeding. Should it continue for more 
than two or three days after these are tried, an ounce of nitre may 
be given every night in a bran mash. 

Ordinary swelling of the legs, or osdema, occurs in every 
degree, from a slight "filling," to which many horses are always 
subject, whether they work or stand in the stable, to an enlarge- 
ment extending up to the stifles and elbows, sometimes rendering 
the legs almost as round and as hard as mill-posts. When horses 
are first brought in from grass their legs almost always fill more or 
less, and until they are regularly seasoned to their work there is 
seldom that clean condition of the suspensory ligaments and back 
sinews which one likes to see even before the daily exercise is given. 
The oedema appears to depend partly upon a deficient action of the 
kidneys, but chiefly on the vesseb of the legs not acting sufficiently 
without constant walking exercise, such as is natural to the horse 
when at liberty, and which he takes at grass. Half an hour's walk- 
ing will generally produce absorption completely, so that a daily 
remedy is forthcoming ; but as a rule, whenever there is this ten- 
dency to " filling" of the legs, the cellular membrane is not the 
only tissue in fault, but the tendons and joints are also liable to 
inflammation. The treatment will greatly depend on the exact 
cause. If the swelling is only due to the change from grass to 
the confinement of a warm stable, time alone is wanted, taking care 
not to overwork the horse in the mean time. Bandages will always 
assist in keeping down the swelling ; but they should not be used 
without necessity, as when once the horse becomes accustomed to 
them his legs can hardly be kept fine without their aid. If weak- 
ness is the cause, a drachm of sulphate of iron given in the corn 
twice a day will often strengthen the system, and with it the legs. 
Diuretics may be adopted as an occasional aid to the kidneys, but 
they should be of the mildest kind, such as nitre, or they will do 
more harm, by weakening the body generally, than good by their 
stimulus to the kidneys. Indeed, they are often the sole cause of 



394 THE HOESE. 

the legs filling, for some grooms use them so continually, whether 
they are wanted or not, that the kidneys become diseased and refuse 
to act, which is a sure forerunner of oedema. Where swelling of 
the legs is confirmed, bandages must be regularly applied as recom- 
mended at page 196. 

CHAPPED HEELS. 

When a horse suffers from cedema of the legs, he is par- 
ticularly prone to an eruption of a watery nature in the cleft 
between the heels and behind the lesser pastern. Those also 
whose legs are washed and not dried are still more prone to it, 
especially if the hair is white. The skin cracks, and, in bad cases, 
is so inflamed and swollen that the leg cannot be bent without great 
pain, and often there is a bleeding from the cracks, caused by the 
action of the limb, but only to a sufficient extent to show that blood 
has escaped. The treatment must be local as well as general if the 
eruption is not entirely due to mismanagement. In any case, the 
part should be dressed with cerate of acetate of lead, a little of 
which should be rubbed in every night. Next morning some gly- 
cerine should be brushed on an hour at least before the exercise, 
and renewed before the daily work is commenced. This will pre- 
vent all risk of the skin cracking, while the ointment will act bene- 
ficially on the vessels of the part. In addition to these applica- 
tions, the general health should be attended to if in fault, and 
tonics or diuretics should be given, as the case may require 

GEEASE. 

[Commonly called "Scratches" in the United States."] 

The eruption known as grease is sometimes only an aggra- 
vated form of chapped heels, and is often preceded by them. At 
others the appearance of the disease is ushered in by constitutional 
symptoms, such as feverishness, cedema of the limbs and hide- 
bound. The first local symptom is a slight swelling of the skin 
of the heels and adjacent parts, which soon cracks, and from the 
fissures there exudes an offensive discharge which looks greasy, but 
is really watery, being of a serous nature. It inflames every part 
that it touches, and has a tendency to cause a spread of the eruption 
in all directions, but chiefly downwards. The legs go on swelling to 
a frightful extent, and are thereby rendered so stiff and sore that 
great lameness is produced. If this stage is neglected the whole 
surface ulcerates, and a fungous growth makes its appearance, 
chiefly from the original cracks. The discharge becomes purulent 
and has a most foul smell, and the leg can with difficulty be bent 
at all. Finally, the fungous excrescences cover the whole of the 
diseased skin, being of a bright red color, and slightly resembling 
grapes in form, from which circumstances this stage has been 



GREASE, OR SCRATCHES. 395 

called " the grapes." It is now very rare to meet with grease in 
any of its forms except in the cart-stable, where the hairy legs of 
its inmates render them peculiarly prone to its attacks, from the 
time required to dry them when wet. They are so difficult to clean 
without water that the carters may well be excused for using it, 
but if they do they ought carefully to dry the legs afterwards. 
The treatment when grease is established must be founded upon 
the same principle as in chapped heels. The skin must be kept 
supple, and at the same time stimulated to a healthy action. For 
the former purpose glycerine is most valuable, being far more effi- 
cacious than any greasy dressing, such as we were obliged to employ 
before the discovery of this substance. In all the stages of grease, 
this latter agent may be employed, and as it is readily soluble in 
water it can be washed off and renewed as often as it may be desired. 
The discharge is so foul and irritating that it ought to be thoroughly 
removed at least once in twenty-four hours, and one of the chief 
advantages of the use of glycerine is that it so greatly assists this 
cleansing process from its solubility in water. In addition to this 
emollient plan, some stimulus must be selected, and none answers 
so well (in all stages but the very earliest) as chloride of zinc. 
When, therefore, the heels are in that state that it is almost doubt- 
ful whether the disease is the mere chap or absolute grease, the 
treatment recommended for the former may be tried, but should 
this fail, the groom should at once proceed to cut the hair of the 
skin which is diseased as short as possible. Then let him take 
some soap and warm water and gently wash the parts with a sponge 
till the skin is perfectly clean and free from scab or scurf, taking 
care to remove every particle of soap by well rinsing it. Next dry 
the leg, and then with a small paint-brush rub gently into the in- 
flamed parts enough of the following lotion to damp them, but not 
to wet them thoroughly : — 

Take of Chloride of Zinc 30 grs. 

Water 1 pint. Mix. 

A quarter of an hour afterwards apply a little glycerine over the 
whole, and keep the parts sufficiently supple with it. If there is 
much discharge the cleansing may be repeated night and morning, 
followed by the chloride of zinc, but in most cases once a day will 
be sufficiently often. If the ulcerated or inflamed skin does not 
put on a healthy appearance in a few days, the lotion may be in- 
creased in strength, using forty, fifty, or sixty grains to the pint, 
as required; but the remedy will be found to be almost a specific, ex- 
cept for the grapy form, if properly proportioned in strength. When 
the fungoid growths are very extensive, nothing but their removal, 
either by the knife or by the actual or potential cautery, will suffice. 
The least painful plan is to slice them off to a level with the skin 



396 THE HORSE. 

and then just touch the bleeding surface with a hot iron, which 
will have the double good effect of stopping the bleeding and in- 
ducing a healthy action. The glycerine may then be applied, and 
next day the leg may be treated in the same way as for ordinary 
grease described above. When the disease is of long standing, 
local applications may cure it for a time, but either it will return, 
or there will be some other organ attacked, unless the unhealthy 
state of the blood is attended to. It must be remembered that 
during the existence of grease this vital fluid is called upon to 
supply the materials for the secretion which is constantly going on. 
Now if on the cessation of the demand for them the blood still 
goes on obtaining its supplies from the digestive organs, it becomes 
overloaded, a state of plethora is established, whinh Nature attempts 
to relieve in some one or other of her established modes by setting 
up disease. To avoid such a result arsenic may be given internally, 
for this medicine has a special power in counteracting this ten- 
dency. How it acts has never yet been made out, but that it does 
exert such a power is thoroughly ascertained, and if the doses are 
not too large it is unattended by any injurious effect. Indeed for a 
time it seems to act as as a tonic. The arsenic should be given in 
solution and with the food, so as to procure its absorption into the 
blood without weakening the stomach. A wine-glassful of liquor 
arsenicalis (1£ oz.) should be poured over the corn twice a day, 
and continued for a couple of months, when it may be discontinued 
with a fair hope of its having had the desired effect. Should the 
skin, however, look inflamed, a second course of it may be given, 
and it will be found that if it is given with the corn it will not be 
followed by any injurious consequences.* 

WARTS. 

Warts are, generally, only to be considered as eyesores; for, 
unless they appear on the penis, they are not injurious to health; 
nor do they interfere with work unless they happen to appear on 
the shoulders beneath the collar in a harness horse, which is very 
rare indeed. They are, doubtless, very unsightly, and, for this 
reason, it is often desired to remove them, which may be done by 
first picking off the rough outer surface, so as to make them bleed, 
and then rubbing in, with a stiff brush, some yellow orpiment, 
wetted with a little water. This will cause considerable inflam- 
mation, and in a few days the wart will drop off, leaving a healthy 
sore, which soon heals. Sometimes the whole wart does not come 
away on the first application, in which case a second must be 
made. When the glans penis is completely covered with warts, 

* The best treatmeLt for scratches will be found to be carbolic acid one part, 
cold water forty parts, applied from one to three times daily. — Editor. 



WARTS AND CORNS. 397 

the best plan is to amputate it, as it requires the gi latest caution 
and tact to remove them by arsenic or any other caustic without 
destroying, also, as much of the penis as is taken away by the 
knife. 

CORNS. 

These troublesome results of bad shoeing, or subsequent 
neglect of the feet, make their appearance in the sole of the foot, 
in the angle formed between the crust and the bar (see fig. 20 (E), 
Chap. XXVI.). Where the foot is properly prepared for the shoe, 
and the smith seats the heel of the crust and the bar on a 
level surface, no corn will make its appearance in a healthy foot ; 
but if a corn has previously existed, or if the shoe is allowed to 
press upon the sole at E (see fig. 20, Chap. XXVI.), the delicate 
blood-vessels of the sensible sole are ruptured, and, instead of se- 
creting a sound horn, capable of bearing the slight strain upon it 
which is required, a fungoid growth is formed, presenting a reddish 
appearance, and exquisitely sensitive. This morbid substance 
does not at all resemble the hard corn of the human subject, which 
is a thickened secretion of cuticle, but it bears some comparison 
with the soft corns that form so often between the toes, and give 
so much trouble in their removal. It is, in fact, a new growth of 
a semi-fungoid character, partly made up of granulations and 
partly of horny matter, the two being closely united. The corn 
may arise from improper pressure made on this part of the sensible 
sole, either directly from the shoe, or indirectly by pressing a thin 
brittle crust inwards upon it. Generally, however, it is met with 
at the inner heel, from the shoe being overgrown by that part of 
the foot when kept on too long. The outer nails do not allow it 
to work in the contrary direction, and if there is a clip on the 
outer quarter this is rendered still more improbable. If, there- 
fore, shoeing is properly managed, corns may always be prevented, 
and we shall see in the directions for shoeing, at Chap. XXVI., 
how this is to be managed. At present I have to consider how 
they are to be relieved or cured when they are already established. 

The ordinary mode op treating corns is simply to cut 
them out, leaving the bar and heel of the crust full, and thus 
taking all pressure off them. This enables the horse to do his work 
for about ten days, but then the shoe must be removed, and the 
paring-out repeated, a process which weakens the already weak 
crust by making additional nail-holes in it. The shoe at the same 
time is generally "sprung," that is, it is so bent or filed that the 
heel does not fully bear upon it ; but this does not last many 
hours, and is of little real utility. The plan answers well enough 
for the purposes of fraudulent sellers, as the horse runs sound for 
about ten days ; and when he fails, and on taking off his shoe he 
34 



398 THE HORSE. 

is discovered to havs a corn, it is impossible to prove that it ex- 
isted at the time of sale by any evidence but that of the smith 
who shod him previously to it. Excepting, therefore, in very 
slight and recent cases, in which it will sometimes be followed by 
success, this planjjof treatment is only palliative, and what is worse, 
it tends to increase the weakness of the foot and consequent ten- 
dency to the disease. 

For the curative plan we must do something more than 
merely take the pressure off the sole ; the bar and heel of the 
crust must also be relieved, and the sensible sole must be stimu- 
lated, by a proper application, to secrete healthy horn, as well as 
by pressure on the frog. If the horse is to be rested, this can be 
done easily enough by taking off his shoes, but he may be kept at 
work by putting on a bar-shoe, and cutting down the bar and crust, 
60 as to throw all the pressure off them upon the frog. A double 
purpose is effected in this way. First, the sensible sole is relieved 
of the constant pressure which the crust bears upon it laterally j 
and, secondly, the jar on the frog, communicated through the shoe, 
from the ground, induces a healthy action in the foot, and the sole 
has a greater tendency to secrete healthy horn. There is no doubt 
in my mind that all horses would work much better, and keep their 
feet in much sounder condition, if their frogs could be brought into 
use, without being guarded as they are by the ordinary shoe. This 
part is intended by nature to take upon itself great pressure ; and 
if it has not its natural stimulus it becomes weak itself, and, more- 
over, it does not stimulate the surrounding parts to a healthy action, 
as it ought to do. The bar-shoe is inconvenient for many purposes, 
and, therefore, it is not generally applied ; but as a curative agent 
these objections are to be dispensed with, and then it will be found 
to be extremely valuable, not only in relieving the diseased part (the 
corn) but in giving a healthy action to its seat, the sole. The smith 
should, therefore, pare down the crust at the heel, so that when the 
bar-shoe is applied it will allow a penny-piece to be insinuated be- 
tween the two surfaces. With this the horse does his work com- 
fortably on the road ; and in process of time, that is, in two or three 
months, the heel grows up, and takes its own share of pressure, or 
a part of it, becoming gradually accustomed to the amount which it 
will have to bear when the bar-shoe is discontinued. In the mean 
time a little of the following lotion may be applied daily to the 
Bituation of the corn by means of a feather. 

Take of Chloride of Zinc 1 drachm. 

Water 6 oz. 

Glycerine 2 oz. Mix. 

In every case, the bar-shoe must be continued until the heel of the 
crust and the bar grow down strongly; and thfn a common shoe 
may be applied. 



SANDCRACK— FALSE QUARTER. 399 

SANDCRACK. 

In the anatomical description op the foot, at page 291, 
it will be seen that the crust is composed of fibres, running paral- 
lel to each other in a direction from the coronet to the ground sur- 
face. These fibres are glued together firmly in a sound and strong 
hoof; but, in a weak one, it sometimes happens that the gelatinous 
matter is not in sufficient quantity, and then the fibres separate, 
and leave a crack of greater or less extent, according to circum- 
stances. This, called a sandcrack, happens at the thinnest part, 
which is the inner quarter in the fore foot, and the toe in the hind. 
To cure it, the foot must be rested, or at least that part of it where 
the crack occurs, which in the fore foot may be effected by the use 
of a bar-shoe, throwing the pressure entirely on the frog, as recom- 
mended in the last section on corns, and taking care that the crust 
behind the crack is not in contact with the shoe. By adopting 
this plan, I have succeeded in curing sand-cracks during moderate 
work ; but if it happens in the hind foot, complete rest must be 
given, as the toe cannot be relieved by any possible contrivance. 
The next thing to be done is to open the crack slightly, so that 
any grit getting into it shall not cause its further expansion ; and 
in doing this, if there is any little cellular cavity, it should be ex- 
posed. If the crack extends to the coronet, which it rarely does, 
nothing can be done until it has grown out for at least half an 
inch from that part, when the point of a hot iron may be applied 
to the angle of the crack for a second, so as to keep out water, 
which has the effect of causing the fibres to split by the capillary 
attraction which is exercised. The burn should be very slight, 
and should not be carried deeply into the substance of the horn. 
A fine nail should then be driven from below through the crust, 
the shoe being removed ; and when brought out at the usual place, 
should be left projecting. The shoe should be put on, and the 
innermost nail also left projecting. These two should then be 
firmly bound together by fine wire, so as to bring the edges of the 
crack together ; and the foot should be left in this state for at least 
a month or five weeks, when the shoe may be taken off, and the 
operation repeated. This is far better than binding wire or twine 
round the whole foot, as it acts more completely on the crack, 
without confining the growth of the remainder of the foot. Of 
course, after the wire is twisted on, the nails must be clenched, and 
there will be a greater projection than usual; but this is of no im- 
portance whatever. In cracks of the hind foot the nails in each 
quarter will keep the two sides from separating, but the horse can. 
not be worked. 

FALSE QUARTER. 

When, from an accident, the coronary substance is perma- 
nency injured, it ceases to secrete sound horn, and a stripe of the 



400 THE HORSE. 

crust, defective in strength, runs all the way down from the coro- 
net to the plantar edge. This generally happens at the inner 
quarter, and is owing to the horse treading on his coronet; but it 
may also occur on the outside, either from the tread of another 
horse, or from some kind of external violence. The result is simi- 
lar to that of a sandcrack ; there is no strength in the affected heel, 
and lameness is produced. The treatment is very much the same 
as for sandcrack. In the first place, the pressure must be taken 
off the quarter, and a bar-shoe applied, so as to convey the weight 
on the frog, as described under the head of Sandcrack. The heel 
of the affected quarter should be lowered, and thus further injury 
will be prevented. The next thing to be done is to stimulate the 
coronet to a healthy action by blistering it, which must be done 
two or three times, taking care that the blister is not of too violent 
a nature, and that the skin heals before a second is applied. By 
these means, a cure may sometimes be effected ; but it takes a con- 
siderable time, and until the quarter is reproduced in full strength, 
or nearly so, the bar-shoe should be continued. By its use, any 
horse with a sound frog can travel very well on the road, even if 
the quarter is entirely and permanently separated from the toe by 
inefficient horn; and without it, the chance of a cure is not to be 
reckoned on. 

QUITTOR. 

By this term is understood a chronic abscess of the foot, 
the matter always forming sinuses, from the difficulty which nature 
has to overcome in finding a way for it to reach the surface. 
Generally, the mischief is occasioned by an overreach, or a bruise 
of the sole, or by the inflammation resulting from a neglected 
thrush, or, lastly, from a nail-prick. From any of these causes, 
inflammation of the delicate investment of the coffin-bone is set up, 
pus is secreted, and, in working its way to the surface, it burrows 
between the horu and the bone, and forms one or more sinuses, or 
pipes, as these fistulous tubes are called by the farrier. A quittor 
is recognised by the eye and nose detecting an opening in the 
horn, from which a foul discharge proceeds ; and on introducing a 
probe, it will generally pass freely in two or three directions, some- 
times giving a grating sensation to the finger, showing that the 
bone is denuded, and most probably carious. There is generally 
a considerable increase of temperature in the foot, and always 
more or less lameness, with, in most cases, swelling of the bulbuus 
heels and coronet. On examining the sole carefully, some part 
will either show a difference of color from the adjacent horn, 01 
there will be a yielding on pressure, owing to its being undermined. 
The treatment must be conducted on the same principle as for 
fistulous sores. In the first place, a dependent opening must bt 



QUITTOR— THRUSH. 401 

lormed, so that no matter shall be confined, but it shall be allowed 
to eome away as fast as it forms. This can only be done by prob- 
ing; and if the original opening is in the coronet, the probe must 
be passed down as low as possible, and then the sole should be 
pared away till the end can be reached. In tolerably recent quit- 
tors, this plan alone will allow the sinus to heal ; but in old ones, 
the internal surface has become callous, and no granulations are 
thrown out. Here an injection should be thrown in every day 
with a syringe, a saturated solution of sulphate of zinc being that 
generally recommended ; but I have found the chloride answer 
still better, using one drachm of the salt to a pint of water at first, 
and going on up to two drachms. By injecting this daily, and in- 
troducing a piece of lint, wetted with it, into the superior opening, 
leaving the lower one free, I have cured many bad quittors, even 
when there was evidence of caries of the coffin-joint. The disease 
requires a careful adjustment of the remedies to its extent and 
nature, and a theoretical description of it is of little use. 

THRUSH. 

Any offensive discharge from the frog is called by this 
name, although the cause and treatment may be as different as 
possible. It varies greatly in the fore and hind feet; and, indeed, 
it must never be forgotten that, in every case, the cause which 
has produced the discharge must be clearly made out before any 
plan of treatment can be carried out with any prospect of success 
Sometimes thrush is merely the result of the decomposition of the 
horny frog, from the foot being constantly kept wet with urine, 
which is most common in the hind foot. Here the surface becomes 
soft, and is gradually dissolved; while the cleft, from its retaining 
the moisture, is increased in size. This state is often brought on 
by the too frequent use of cowdung-stopping in horses with soft 
frogs; and, instead of doing good by his treatment of the foot, the 
groom is really destroying it by encouraging the decomposition of 
the healthy defence which Nature has given to it. For this kind 
of thrush, very little treatment is required, if the cause which 
produced it is withdrawn. Still it is not always easy to keep the 
frog dry, and stop the decomposition, without the application of 
some astringent ; and if the mere use of dry litter, and the appli- 
cation of tar ointment, do not seem to harden the frog at once, it 
may be touched with a wash composed of ten grains of bluestone 
to the ounce of water. This will soon dry it; or, if it fails by any 
chance, the chloride of zinc may be used in the same way, by 
dissolving five grains i Q an ounce of water. 

The second kind of thrush is that in which from a gross 
habit of body there is a simple inflammation of the sensible frog, 
and instead of sound horn being secreted, a sponsy substance is 
34* 2 c 



402 THE HOUSE. 

deposited, which breaks away in places, and the frog looks ragged 
and uneven, with a greasy surface, smells very foul, and feels hot 
to the touch. Here the treatment must be general as well as local. 
A dose of physic should be given, the food should be of a less 
stimulating quality, and care should be taken that regular exercise 
is allowed every day. The stable should be kept cool, and of 
course attention should be paid to cleanliness both of the foot and 
the litter. As to local remedies, they must not be of the stimu- 
lating kind, which will suit the thrush from decomposition, or that 
presently to be described. The foot should be placed in a bran 
poultice, and kept in it for some days, till the united action of the 
local and general treatment have reduced the inflammation. After 
a few days it will be well to dress the frog with tar ointment, or 
the poultice will do more harm than good, by causing the decom- 
position of its horny covering, and indeed it is seldom that this 
wet application should be employed for more than a week. After 
this time has elapsed, all the good to be derived from it has been 
accomplished, and the subsequent treatment may generally be 
effected by attention to the health, and dressing the frog with tar 
ointment. Sometimes it may be necessary to employ a slight 
stimulus, and then the solution of chloride of zinc will be found to 
be the best. 

The third kind of thrush occurs in contracted feet, and is 
due to the same cause, namely, chronic inflammation of the sensi- 
ble frog, produced by overwork, aided in many cases by neglect in 
shoeing. There is a tendency to the secretion of unsound horn 
over the whole foot, sometimes too thick and hard, and at others 
of a cellular structure, without sufficient strength to bear the pressure 
of the road. The horny frog generally looks shrunken and withered ; 
and in its cleft there is a foul discharge, on wiping which out a 
soft spongy matter may be seen at the bottom, which is the sensible 
frog itself, but in a diseased condition. In bad cases, the sides of 
the horny frog have separated, and even the toe is sometimes defi- 
cient of its covering; but generally the horn has only disappeared 
in patches, and there are ragged portions remaining. The disease 
here is of too chronic a nature to be easily cured, and if there ia 
much disorganization of the laminae it will be almost impossible to 
effect a perfect cure. The first thing to be done is to clear away 
all the ragged portions of horn, so as to be able to reach the sensi- 
ble frog. Some tow is then to be smeared with the following oint- 
ment ; — 

Take of Ointment of Nitrate of Mercury .... 1 drachm. 

Zinc Ointment 1 oz. 

Creosote 4 drops. Mix. 

and pressed into the cleft of the frog, where it can best be retained 



THRUSH— CANKER— LAMINITIS. 403 

by a bar -shoe lightly tacked on, and in this ease taking its bearing 
on the heels and not on the frog. Sometimes a wash answers 
better than a greasy application, and then a strong solution of the 
chloride of zinc may be employed, about six grains to the ounce 
of water. Tow dipped in this may be applied in the same way as 
with the ointment, and either one or the other should be re-ap- 
plied every day. As the new horn grows, it must be kept supple 
by tar ointment, and until it is fully developed the bar-shoe should 
be kept on, applying some degree of pressure by means of the tow, 
which should be stuffed in so as to compress the frog, beginning 
with very light pressure, and, as the horn increases in substance, 
augmenting it in proportion. By attention to these directions a 
thrush of this kind may be cured, if the foot is not damaged 
throughout, and even the frog may be restored to a comparative 
state of health. 

CANKER. 

Canker is generally an extension of the third form of thrush, 
the ulceration spreading to the sensible sole, and afterwards to the 
coffin-bone itself. At first the ulcerated surface is concealed by the 
old horn, but gradually this breaks away, aud then the extent of 
the mischief may be seen. A part or the whole of the sole and the 
frog may be in a state of ulceration, generally depending upon the 
time during which the disease has been in existence, and the care 
which has been taken of it, or the reverse. The only treatment to 
be adopted is the careful removal of every loose piece of horn, so 
as to expose the unsound surface to the action of remedies, and at 
the same time to avoid poisoning it by the decomposing horn, which 
has a most irritating effect. The sulphate of copper, and chloride 
of zinc, are the best applications, and they must be used in full 
strength. These cases, however, require an experienced eye to 
enable the prescriber to judge of the proper amount of caustic re- 
quired; and beyond suggesting the kind of remedy required, no 
good can be done by written prescriptions. If it is impossible to 
obtain the advice of a veterinarian, it will be better to begin by 
using a mild caustic, and then increase the strength as it is found 
to be wanted. Pitch ointment forms the best greasy application to 
the adjacent sound surfaces to protect them from the irritation of 
the discharge. 

LAMINITIS. 
{Founder or Fever of the Feet.) 

The term laminitis is now familiar with every one at all ac- 
customed to horses, though it has not long been introduced into 
the vocabulary of the professional man. The disease, however, 
has been recognised for many years under the terms "founder" 
and " fe^er of the feet." It consists in an inflammation (which 



404 THE HORSE. 

may be acute or chronic) of the parts between the crust or wall 
and the pedal bone, including the laminae, whence the name by 
which it is now distinguished. These parts are supplied with a 
profusion of blood-vessels (see page 294), and when inflammation 
is set up in them, the progress which it makes is rapid, and the 
constitutional disturbance is unusually great, owing probably to 
the want of space for the swelling which accompanies all inflamma- 
tions, and especially of vascular substances. The causes are either, 
1st. Localization of fever, whence the name " fever in the feet." 
2d. The mechanical irritation of hard roads upon feet not accus- 
tomed to them ; and 3d. Long confinement in a standing position 
on board ship. When it is recollected that in our system of shoe- 
ing, the laminae are made to support the whole weight of the body 
in consequence of the shoe being in contact with the crust only, it 
can only occasion surprise that this disease is not more frequent. 
Nature framed the horse's foot so that an elastic pad should inter- 
pose between its back parts and the ground, intending that the 
edge of the crust should take its share, but not all of the weight. 
The laminae are therefore called upon to do far more than their 
structure is designed for, and when there is the slightest weakness 
or tendency to inflammation, they are sure to suffer. Acute lami- 
nitis is not very often met with, because horsemen are aware of 
the risks they run, and take their measures accordingly; but the 
chronic form is common enough, and hundreds of horses are more 
or less lame from this cause. Too often it is not suspected until 
irreparable mischief is done, the elasticity of the laminae being de- 
stroyed, and the foot having assumed a shape which utterly unfits 
it for bearing the pressure of the shoe upon hard roads. When 
the disease has been going on for a long time, the elastic substances 
between the laminae and the pedal bone, as well as the fine horny 
lamellae between them and the crust, lose the property of extension, 
and the horn of the crust is secreted by nature of a more spongy 
character, and much thicker in substance, than in health. On 
making a section of such a foot, the arrangement of parts will be 
such as is here delineated in fig. 19, in which 1 is the os suffraginis, 
2, the os coronae, and 3, the pedal bone, with its anterior surface 
separated from that of the crust (7) by a wide space occupied by 
spongy matter. Here the toe of the pedal bone projects into the 
sole and renders it convex, instead of being concave, and correspond- 
ing with the lower surface of the pedal bone. 

The laminae and elastic substances between them and their 
contiguous structures no longer suspend the pedal bone to the 
crust, but the weight falls partly upon the sole by means of the 
toe of the pedal bone, and partly on the frog, which descends so 
low that in spite of the thickness of the shoe it touches the ground. 



LAMINITIS. 



405 




the horse Stamping gently j\ Wali or crust greatly thickened. 



This descent of the frog is a very 
marked feature in laminitis, and 
whenever it is apparent that dis- 
ease may be suspected. 

But to produce such a 
marked alteration op form 
as is here delineated and de- 
scribed takes a long time, and 
even then it is only in a few 
cases that the disease reaches to 
this stage. It will, therefore, be 
necessary to trace its progress from 
the commencement, and the effects 
which are exhibited as it goes on. 

When acute laminitis sets 
IN, there is a considerable amount Fio. 19.— section of the foot in confirmed 
of fever, indicated hv a rapid , _ _ . . LAM 

. ' , „ ., J. . r , 1. Os suffraginis. 

pulse, usually lull and hard, and 2. os corona. 
hurried respiration. There is a 3 4 ; SSSSta* 
general look of restlessness from 5. Frog 
pain, 

with his feet, and constantly 
lying down and then getting up again. When, as usually happens, 
the fore feet only are affected, the hind feet are brought under the 
body to bear as much weight as possible, and the fore feet are so 
carried forwards that the heels support the legs rather than the 
toes. On examining the feet, there is great reluctance to allow 
one to be picked up, on account of the necessity which is thrown 
upon the other of taking the whole weight of the fore quarter. 
The coronet and hoof feel very hot, and. when wetted, may be sees 
to steam very perceptibly. If this state of things is not speedily 
stopped, the laminae cease to secrete horn, and the connection be- 
tween them and the hoof ceases, causing the latter to separate, and 
the sensible parts to be exposed, covered with a thin scaly horn. 
This has happened in many cases which have afterwards secreted 
new hoofs; but the horn is not so strong and useful as before, and a 
horse with such feet is not fit for hard work on the road. If proper 
treatment is adopted, the inflammation either subsides entirely, 
leaving no mischief behind it, or there is a chronic inflammation 
left which induces the alterations of structure which have been 
alluded to. The treatment should be by first removing the shoes, 
and then, after paring down the sole so as to allow of the expansion 
of the sensible parts, a large quantity of blood is taken from the 
toe, making sure that a vessel of sufficient size is opened to produce 
a strong shock on the heart and arteries, as well as to relieve the 
local affection. If the blood does not flow freely, the foot may be 



406 THE HORSE. 

placed in a pail of warm water, but when the operation is properly 
performed there is never any difficulty in obtaining any quantity 
of blood which may be required. Next tack the shoes on lightly 
again, and then give a smart dose of physic, or else, what is per- 
haps a better plan, give the following: — 

Take of Barbadoes Aloes 

Tartar Emetic, of each 1 drachm. 

Powdered Digitalis 2 drachm. 

Syrup enough to form a ball, 

which should be given every six hours, until the bowels act, when 
the other materials may be continued without the aloes. The feet 
should be kept constantly wet and cool by tying a piece of felt or 
flannel around each pastern, and allowing it to fall over the hoof, 
when it is to be continually wetted. If the inflammation is not 
abated next day, the bleeding may be repeated, and it will be well 
also to act on the kidneys by adding two or three drachms of nitre 
to the tartar emetic and digitalis. 

Chronic laminitis is generally first shown by a slight soreness 
or lameness, generally appearing in both fore feet, and, therefore, 
being often overlooked by casual observers. In coming in from 
work the coronets feel warmer than natural ; but this goes off dur- 
ing the night, and, for a time, no great fears are entertained of the 
feet recovering their former condition, the blame being, perhaps, 
laid upon the shoe. In a month or two, however, the smith (who 
has, perhaps, been ordered to take off the shoes two or three times, 
by which the injury is increased) finds that his nails do not hold, 
and the quarters break away ; while the action of the horse be- 
comes more shambling every day, and he cannot make a sound trot 
on any hard road, especially with a weight on his back. In many 
cases a horse with chronic laminitis can run in hand sound enough 
for an ordinary observer ; but when the extra weight of a rider is 
placed on him the feet cannot bear the pain, and the gait is sham- 
bling in the extreme. Such animals have a strong propensity to 
save their toes, and prefer (if their shoulders will allow it) bring- 
ing their heels to the ground first, so that, although their action is 
excessively low and shambling, they seldom fall. An experienced 
horseman at once detects this peculiar style of going, and con- 
demns its possessor for laminitis. Indeed, it may be assumed as a 
rule, that wherever the heel is put carefully down upon the ground 
with low action, the foot is the subject of laminitis to some extent. 
When the heel is naturally brought to the ground first, the knee 
is well bent, and the foot is raised high in the air ; but in process 
of time work tells on it, the laminae become inflamed, and then the 
action is reduced in height, and the feet are moved in the manner 
peculiar to foundered horses, including those which before they 
were foundered perhaps exhibited " toe action," or, at all events, 



LAMINITIS. 407 

a level fall of the foot. This state of disease ought to be well 
studied, and compared with the remarks on sound action at page 
82 et seq., which it will serve to illustrate and explain. The foot 
itself is changed in form, and the toe and sole have more or less 
altered their relations, as explained already. Sometimes there is 
a large space or cavity between the outer surface and the inner, 
shown at 7, fig. 19, page 405. This hollow in the crust is more or 
less cellular, and the disease is called a " seedy toe," but for wbat 
reason I am at a loss to know. The sole, moreover, is always either 
flatter than natural or absolutely convex, and its horn is brittle and 
spongy, constituting what is termed the " pumiced foot." The 
frog is generally large and spongy ; and on placing a straight-edge 
across the shoe, from heel to heel, it is found to touch that part, 
or nearly so, indicating that the relations between it and the crust, 
as well as the sole, are altogether changed from a natural state. 
The laminae are no longer slings for the foot, but the whole pres- 
sure is taken by the parts lying beneath the pedal or coffin bone 
and the navicular bone. Such being the symptoms, the next thing 
is to consider what can be done. If the disease is of long stand- 
ing, little hope can be given of a perfect recovery. The shape of 
the external parts may be partially restored, but the internal deli- 
cate structures no longer have the power of performing their offices ; 
and the elastic action of the horse suffering from the effects 
of laminitis can seldom be restored on hard ground. After proper 
treatment, he may, and generally does, go on turf well ; but either 
on hard ground or on plough (on the latter of which, though soft 
enough for the laminae, the sole has to bear considerable pressure) 
he is dreadfully sore and lame. This is shown after all inflamma- 
tion has ceased, the foot being as cool as possible, and sometimes 
exhibiting very slight evidences of previous mischief. 

In treating such cases, if there is no heat or other sign of in- 
flammation, bleeding and similar lowering measures will be of no 
avail. They may be required soon enough, it is true, for a foun- 
dered foot is always in danger of inflammation when battered; 
but until symptoms of this kind of mischief are exhibited it is 
better to avoid all depletory measures. At the same time, every- 
thing which will tend to keep off increased action should be 
avoided; the horse should be fed on the least heating food which 
will serve the purpose for which he is intended, and his stable 
should be kept as cool as possible. Beans ought never to be 
allowed to the possessor of feet with the slightest suspicion of 
founder; and no more oats should be used than are necessary for 
the condition required. For horses at slow work, bran mashes 
and nitre, with small doses occasionally of physic, will serve to 
keep down the tendency to inflammation, and by their use, joined 
to cold applications after xcorh (they are of no use at other times), 



408 THE HORSE. 

and a cool stable, the horse may be enabled to do moderately fast 
work. If the frog is not very prominent, a leather sole, put on 
in the usual way, will save the jar, and in some measure supply 
the place of the natural elastic tissue, destroyed in this disease. 
Usually, however, it only adds to the mischief by increasing the 
pressure on the frog, and then the leather must be introduced 
between the foot and the shoe, but cut to the same shape as the 
latter, so as not at all to bear on the frog. Many horses with slight 
traces of laminitis can work for years with leather applied in this 
way, and it may be said to be the most useful mode of treating 
this disease when exhibited in a mild form. Sometimes by throw- 
ing a horse by for six months, taking off his shoes, and blistering 
his coronets two or three times, a great deal of good may be done, 
but he must be put to stand on tan or sawdust during the whole 
time, and never allowed to go on hard ground, even for half a mile 
at a walking pace. By this plan, and by very careful and gradual 
increase of exercise at the end of that time, I have succeeded in 
restoring an elastic condition of the foot ; but I have never known 
one so patched up bear hard work, and I should never advise the 
risk incurred by submitting him to it. Hunting and racing, or, 
indeed, any kind of work on soft ground, will do no harm ; but 
battering on the roads, especially without leather, applied as above 
described, is sure to bring back the inflammation. 

THE SEEDY TOE. 

This term is so generally employed among horsemen, that 
though the state which it describes is one of the ordinary con- 
sequences of laminitis, I prefer to give it a distinct section. I 
have already described its nature in the preceding page, and have 
only now to allude to its treatment. This may generally be so 
conducted as to restore the shape of the foot, if the inflammation 
has not lowered the toe of the pedal bone, as shown at fig. 1 ; for 
if this has taken place, although it is perhaps possible to get rid 
of the cavities in the horn, the relative positions of the bony parts 
cannot be changed. When, however, as is often the case, a 
moderately small hollow has been formed between the layers of 
the wall, and the foot retains a tolerably healthy shape, by cutting 
away all the external horny walls, exposing the parts in contact 
with the laminae, and resting the horse in a loose box, the secret- 
ing surface will form a new wall, without any spongy texture, in 
the course of three or four months, if the coronary band is con- 
stantly stimulated by external applications. To effect this, the 
horse should be put to stand on red deal sawdust, without shoes ; 
and his coronets, after being gently stimulated by a mild liquid 
blister, should be kept dressed with tar ointment, which should 
also be applied to the exterior of the horn. It is seldom, how- 







CONTRACTION OF THE FOOT— NAVICULAR D 



ever, that a foot which has been thus treated is sufficiently sound 
to bear hard work. 

CONTRACTION OF THE FOOT. 

This reputed disease has been long the bugbear of the horse- 
master ; but it is now discovered to be a complete mistake. Some 
of the most contracted feet in point of width are particularly free 
from all risk of disease, and on the other hand many open ones 
are as liable to it. The donkey, whose heels are shaped exactly 
like those of the contracted horse's foot, is so seldom lame, that 
few can recall having seen one in that condition, and, therefore, 
reasoning from analogy, one would be led to doubt that this shape 
renders the horse prone to lameness. At the same time it is quite 
true that in the disease which will next be investigated, the frog 
withers and contracts, and the heels are thereby drawn in ; but 
here the contraction is a consequence and not a cause of disease, 
and certainly cannot be considered as a disease in itself. Bad 
shoeing will do much to cause either laminitis or navicular disease, 
and it will certainly produce corns and inverted heels, but it will 
not waste the frog, or induce that condition of the foot where the 
sole is arched so high that the frog does not touch the ground 
when the shoe is off. Such a state of things can only be brought 
on either by thrush or navicular disease, and is never the result 
of the mechanical mismanagement of the foot, to which what used 
to be called contraction was generally attributed. All sorts of 
plans have been suggested for expanding the heels and for allow- 
ing them to expand ; but the real truth is that so long as the frog is 
sound and the parts above it, allowing the proper amount of pres- 
sure to be communicated to the sole, bars and heel of the crust, 
these latter divisions of the foot have no room to contract, and of 
a certainty they never do. 

NAVICULAR DISEASE. 

This formidable disease, called also the navicular joint 
lameness, and navicular tliritis, is the chief danger to be appre- 
hended from a good-looking strong foot, just as the open flat one 
is prone to laminitis, and is rarely subject to disease in the navicu- 
lar joint. The reason of this immunity on the one hand, and the 
contrary on the other, is this. The open foot, with a large spongy 
frog, exposes the navicular bone and the parts in contact with it 
to constant pressure in the stable, so that these parts are always 
prepared for work. On the other hand, the concave sole and well- 
formed frog are raised from the ground by our unfortunate mode 
of shoeing, and when the whole foot is exposed to injury from bat- 
tering, and in addition the tendon which plays over the navicular 
35 



410 THE HORSE. 

bone presses it against the os coronae, the unprepared state in 
which this part is allowed to remain is sure to produce inflamma- 
tion, if the work is carried far enough. Thus in each case the 
weak part suffers, but occasionally, though very rarely, the foot 
with an arched sole contracts laminitis, and the flat one is attacked 
by navicular disease; the exceptions, however, are so few that 
they may be thrown out of the calculation, and from the shape of 
the foot alone it may almost invariably be pronounced, when a 
horse is known to be subject to chronic lameness, whether its seat 
is in the laminae or in the navicular joint. 

When a foot is examined after death which is known tc 
have been the subject of navicular disease, the parts implicated 
are invariably either the navicular bone, or the soft parts in con- 
tact with it, or often all together. Most frequently on dividing 
the tendon of the flexor perforans and turning it down so as to 
expose the back of the joint between the navicular and coronal 
bones, that part will be greatly thickened and inflamed, the tendon 
being often adherent to it. In the healthy condition there ought 
to be no adhesion of the fibres of the tendon to any part of the 
navicular bone but its postero-inferior edge, to which the tendon 
is fixed by some few fibres, the bulk passing on to be inserted in 
the os pedis. The posterior face of the navicular bone should be 
beautifully smooth, and lined by synovial membrane which forms 
a lubricating sac for it to play upon, and thus take off the friction 
between the tendon and the bone. Such is nature's provision 
against mischief in this delicate part of the machinery of the foot, 
which she keeps in order by the constant supply of synovia or 
joint oil. But when the sac is not stimulated to a healthy action 
by the pressure of the frog below it in doors and out, synovia is 
no longer secreted in proper quantity, and as soon as the horse is 
put to hard work inflammation takes place for want of it. The 
result is some one of the consequences of inflamed joints. Either 
ulceration takes place in the postero-inferior surface, where the 
tendon glides over it, sometimes ending in caries of the bone itself; 
or adhesion takes place without ulceration of the tendon with the 
surface of the bone, or there are small exostoses thrown out, or 
lastly there is simple inflammation without either adhesion or 
ulceration, and in this stage the disease is amenable to treatment 
without leaving any trace behind. 

The symptoms of navicular disease are the same, whether the 
mischief has extended to ulceration or not; but the history will 
guide us in ascertaining how far it has gone. Of course they vary 
in degree, for there may be only a slight extent of ulceration, or a 
high degree of simple inflammation ; but in the former case the 
lameness will not be so marked as in the latter, though the prospect 
of recovery will be much less. There is always more or less lame- 



NAVICULAR DISEASE. 411 

ness; but, in consequence of its affecting both feet, it is not so 
marked to the careless observer as in some much more trivial cases 
where only one is diseased. The distinguishing sign, though not 
absolutely infallible, is the pointing of the toe, and a peculiar 
rounding forward of the fetlock joint, so as to relieve the navicular 
bone of any weight. In laminitis, the object of the sufferer is to 
relieve all pressure as much as possible, by bringing the hind legs 
under the body, and by bearing the weight of the fore quarter on 
the heels. Here, the reverse of the latter attitude is observed — 
the heels are not allowed to take any pressure, and the toes alone 
are placed at all firmly on the ground. This is marked in the 
stable by the pointing of the toe (in each foot alternately, if both 
are diseased, but in the one only, if they are not both affected). 
Out of doors, the toes dig into the ground, the heel never being 
brought firmly down, and frequent stumbles mark the difference 
between this species of lameness and laminitis. The subject of 
navicular disease generally walks sound; but the moment he is 
trotted, he goes as if his legs were tied together, his stride being 
shortened in a remarkable manner, but without exhibiting the pe- 
culiar fumbling gait of the foundered animal. As in his case, soft 
ground suits him, and he has no fear of plough, because his sole 
is hard and unyielding. Many tolerably confirmed cases of navicu- 
lar disease may, therefore, be hunted, except when the ground is 
hard, supposing, of course, that they are kept off the road ; but no 
plan of management will enable them to bear the jars incidental to 
harness-work or hacking. When one foot only is the subject of na- 
vicular disease, it often happens that it is smaller altogether than the 
other ; but it is somewhat difficult to say whether this is a cause 
or a consequence of inflammation. One thing is quite clear, that 
many horses are met with, still perfectly free from lameness, in 
which there is a difference of size in their fore feet; but whether 
or no these are afterwards invariably the subjects of navicular dis- 
ease, it is almost impossible to ascertain. It is, however, the gene- 
ral opinion, founded on experience, that when this variation exists, 
navicular disease is extremely likely to attack the smaller foot, if 
it is not already there; and for this reason, horses with such feet 
are generally avoided by the intending purchaser. 

The treatment of navicular disease, as before remarked, is onlv 
successful in the early stage, before either ulceration or adhesion 
has taken place. If a horse with strong concave soles suddenly 
becomes lame, points his toe, and shows other signs that his navicu- 
lar bone is inflamed, he should be treated in the usual way suited 
to inflammation, and at the same time liberty should be given to 
the vascular tissues to expand, by reducing the substance of the 
horn. Bleeding at the toe has the double good effect of abstract- 
ing blood, and at the same time weakening the sole, so 'is to allow 



412 THE HORSE. 

of the expansion which is desired. The operation ihould, there- 
fore, at once be performed; at the same time, the whole sole may 
be reduced in thickness, and the heels lowered in proportion. The 
foot should then (after the shoe is tacked f.n) be placed in a cold 
bran poultice, which will soften the horn ; and the system should 
be reduced by the exhibition of the medicines recommended under 
Laminitis, at page 406. Next day, if the pulse continues high, 
more blood may be taken ; but, in ordinary cases, it is better at 
once to insert a seton in the frog (see Operations, Chap. XXV.), 
and trust to this for relieving the chronic inflammation remaining, 
by its counter-irritation. But when the disease itself is mastered, 
there is still a good deal to be done to prevent the injurious effects 
which are so apt to follow. The horse contracts a habit of step- 
ping on his toes, to prevent hurting his navicular structures ; and 
hence the frog is not used, the heels of the crust and the bars are 
not strained, and there being no stimulus to the soft parts which 
secrete them, they waste and contract in size. If the human hand 
is allowed to lie idle, the palm and the insides of the fingers are 
covered with a delicate cuticle, which affords so poor a protection 
to the cutis, that, on using it with any kind of hard work, it actu- 
ally separates, and leaves an exposed surface, which speedily in- 
flames. But by gradually exposing the same hand to pressure, a 
thickened and tougher cuticle is secreted ; and this will bear any 
moderate amount of pressure or friction without injury. Never- 
theless, even the hand so prepared must be continually stimulated 
by work, or the skin returns to its original delicate state, and is 
then exposed to the same risk of injury as before. So it is with 
the horse's foot, even in a state of health ; but this is far more 
marked after an attack of disease. The tendency then is to pro- 
duce the natural horny growths of a smaller substance than before; 
and if the secreting surfaces are not stimulated by pressure, they 
become doubly idle, and the frog, as well as the adjacent parts be- 
neath the navicular bone, shows a wasted and shrivelled appearance. 
To avoid the risk of these ill consequences, the horse should be 
placed, for two or three hours daily, on a bed of wet clay, which 
will allow the shoe to sink into it, but will yet be tenacious enough 
to make firm and steady pressure on the frog, while its low tem- 
perature will keep down inflammation. No plan is of so much ser- 
vice in producing what is called expansion of the heels and growth 
of the frog as this ; not, as is commonly supposed, from the clay 
mechanically pressing the heels out, but from the stimulus of its 
pressure causing the soft parts to secrete more horn, and of a 
sounder quality than before. 

Should these remedies fail in restoring the foot affected 
with navicular disease to a healthy state, recourse can only be had 
to the operation of neurotomy, which is perfectly efficacious in re- 



ACCIDENTS TO THE LEGS AND FEET. 413 

moving the lameness; and if there is no ulceration, and merely an 
adhesion of the tendon to the bone, it will, by causing the horse to 
step more on his heels, effect an absolute improvement in the shape 
of the foot, and hence it has sometimes been considered to have 
produced a cure. Where, however, there is caries of the bone, 
or even ulceration of the synovial membrane, the disease progresses 
even faster than before the operation, and in process of time the 
joint becomes mechanically unfit to perform its duties. 

ACCIDENTS TO THE LEGS AND FEET. 

These parts are subject to a variety of accidents, trifling 
perhaps in the cause which produces them, but serious in their 
effects, from the lameness which ensues. The chief of these are 
ordinary cutting, speedy cutting, and pricks of the foot either 
from putting the sole down upon a nail or a piece of glass, or driv- 
ing a nail improperly in shoeing. Bruises and over-reaches also 
come under this head. 

Ordinary cutting may occur either before or behind, the lat- 
ter being the more common. It is often met with in poor horses, 
where the flesh is so reduced in substance that the legs are brought 
nearer together than in a proper condition. Here all that is re- 
quired is patience, till the legs are restored to their proper relative 
position, taking care in the mean time that there is no permanent 
injury done. Usually the inside of one or both feet strikes the 
the fetlock joint of the other leg in passing it, but sometimes the 
blow is given higher up, and it may occur anywhere on the cannon 
bone except just below the knee, when it is called " speedy cut- 
ting," which will be separately considered. Sometimes this blow 
on the side of the cannon bone is either the cause or the effect of 
a splint, the blow of the foot having a tendency to produce exos- 
tosis (See Splints, page 298). But if a splint is thrown out on a 
part of the cannon bone which comes in the way of the natural 
action, the horse whose foot previously passed clear of that part 
of the other leg will hit it, and not only give pain, but cause a 
considerable access of inflammation in the previous enlargement. 
In the treatment, therefore, of cutting, it is necessary to prevent 
the habit being continued from the swelling produced either by a 
splint or by previous blows. A horse perhaps, either from weak- 
ness or bad shoeing, hits his leg and produces considerable swell- 
ing and soreness. Here, unless the swelling is reduced or pro- 
tected, there is no chance of preventing the cutting, because there 
is a projection of the swollen soft parts right in the way of the 
other foot. No alteration of the shoeing, and no increase of 
strength or flesh, will be of service unti. the inflammation is re- 
duced, and the sore, if any exists, is healed, and this can only be 
done either by rest or by protecting the leg with a boot. Tli" 
35* 



414 THE HORSE. 

latter is the better plan, and wherever a horse cuts, it is, in my 
opinion, advisable to let him wear a boot for some weeks, until the 
skin is quite sound again and reduced to its proper thickness. A 
piece of an old rug folded round the leg so as slightly to overlap, 
and then tied with a tape and turned down over the fetlock joint, 
is quite sufficient to serve this temporary purpose, and being soft 
it is well calculated to protect a swollen joint; but if it is worn 
for any length of time, the pressure of the tape and the friction 
of the grit from the road wear away the hair, and cause an un- 
sightly appearance, which is sometimes permanent. If, therefore, 
the cutting is not rectified completely in the course of a month or 
six weeks, a leather or india rubber boot should be nicely adapted 
to the joint and buckled round it, the flat surface of the strap not 
having so injurious an effect as the tape of the cloth boot. When 
the cutting takes place above the joint, a pad must be adapted to 
its inside, and fastened round the cannon bone by two or three 
buckles, according to the height at which the injury takes place. 

Such is the best mode of guarding against the injury done 
by cutting, but we must also consider how it can be entirely pre- 
vented. In the first place it should be carefully ascertained by 
what part of the foot or shoe the blow is given. Most commonly 
it will be found, by chalking the inside of the foot, that a small 
patch is rubbed clear of chalk, about half an inch above the mid- 
dle of the quarter, and corresponding with the hindermost nail 
hole, especially when four inside nails are used. When this is the 
hitting point, if great care is taken to avoid driving in a nail there, 
the tendency to cut can never be increased as it often is by a raised 
clench, and at the same time the rasp may safely be used to reduce 
the thickness of the hoof at least the eighth of an inch, or often 
much more. The crust is usually here about three-eighths of an 
inch thick, and very often it is so sound that it will bear to be 
rasped down till there is only one-eighth left, provided it has not to 
hear the pressure of a nail near it, and that the reduction is not 
carried up too near to the coronet. In the hind foot the quarter 
is fully half an inch thick, and it therefore will bear reduction 
better even than the fore foot. Sometimes the blow is given by 
the shoe itself, which is fixed on so as to overlap the crust, and 
then the remedy is simple enough, for this ought never to occur, 
and can easily be prevented by any smith. But supposing, in spite 
of these precautions, the cutting still continues after the horse is 
restored to his natural strength and flesh, can anything be done 
by shoeing ? In most cases this question may be answered in the 
affirmative, by the use of what is called a feather-edged shoe. By 
its aid the heels are both raised, not the inner one only (which is 
entirely useless and even prejudicial, for then the ground surface 
of the shoe is not a true plane), but both heels, the inner one be- 



ACCIDENTS TO THE LEGS AND FEET. 415 

ing narrow, and having no nail holes heyond the two near the toe, 
so that there is no danger of the web projecting; nor is there any 
nail hole required, with the fear of a clench rising, or of the crust 
being weakened so as to prevent its being thinned to a proper de- 
gree. By thus raising the heels (in the hind foot especially), the 
fetlock is less bent, and as in horses that cut there is almost always 
a tendency in their fetlock joints to bend inwards as well as back- 
wards, this diminution of the angle will not only straighten the leg 
in a forward direction, but will also increase the distance between 
the joints, which is the object to be desired. In the fore foot the 
obliquity in this direction is not so frequent, and then the high 
heel will be of no use; indeed, it is only when the toes are much 
turned out that this plan of shoeing the fore foot is ever successful. 
When cutting occurs before, unless there is this turn out, it is bet- 
ter to put the shoes on in a perfectly level manner, and trust to the 
reduction of the thickness of the quarter, and the absence of the 
third nail. If, with these precautions, the horse, when in good 
condition, still strikes his fore legs, it will be better to put up with 
the constant use of a boot. Generally, however, if the inflammation 
is first subdued, and the foot is shod in a perfectly true and level 
manner, taking care to rasp away the particular part which strikes 
the other leg, it will be found that the cutting is avoided. 

Speedy cutting is more dangerous than ordinary cutting, be- 
cause the pain given by the blow is generally more severe, and is 
often so great that the horse falls as if he were shot. On exam- 
ining the leg of a confirmed speedy cutter there is always appa- 
rent a small scab or bruise on the inside of the cannon bone, im- 
mediately below the knee ; but in slight cases rest may have been 
used to allow the skin to heal, and then no mark may possibly be 
left. A careful examination will, however, generally detect a small 
bare place, partially concealed by the growth of the adjacent hair. 
In bad cases the periosteum is swollen, and there is a considerable 
enlargement of the surface of the bone. In the management of 
slight cases of this kind of cutting, the action should be examined 
while the hoof is covered with chalk, and the latter should be 
treated in the same way as already described. If, however, this fails, 
as it generally does in this form of cutting, there is no remedy but 
to put on a regular speedy-cut boot, in which there is a pad buckled 
on the inside of the leg, and reaching from the knee to the fetlock. 
It must be of this length, because otherwise it cannot be kept in 
its place, as the leg allows it to slip down until it reaches the 
larger circumference presented by the joint. Where there is pain 
and swelling caused by the contusion, it must be treated in the 
ordinary way, by the application of cold water and tincture of 
arnica, a wine-glassful of the latter in two quarts of water. 

Pricks in shoeing occur from the want of skill in the smith 



416 THE HORSE. 

who drives the nail too near the laminae, and sometimes even abso- 
lutely wounds them. It may be that the nail in its passage 
upwards is not within an eighth of an inch of these delicate parts, 
and the horse may not have flinched during the driving of it, but 
when he is put to work the nail opposes a hard unyielding line to 
the soft parts, inflammation is established, and possibly even matter 
is formed which may end in quittor. When, on the day after 
shoeing, a horse which was previously sound, goes lame, and the 
foot is hot to the touch, it may generally be assumed that a nail 
or nails have been driven too near to the quick, unless there is 
evidence of laminitis from other causes. On tapping the crust with 
a hammer, the horse will flinch at some particular spot, and there 
is the nail which is in fault. Sometimes there is little inflamma- 
tion as yet set up, but the pressure of the nail is sufficient to cause 
lameness, and in either case the shoe should be taken off". Then, 
if there is reason to suppose that matter has formed, the opening 
from which the nail came out should be enlarged, and the matter 
allowed to escape. If, however, the foot has been merely "bound," 
it may be either left to nature, with a shoe lightly tacked on, and 
a wet "swab" round the coronet, or it may be placed in a bran 
poultice, which is the safest plan. 

When a nail is picked up on the road, the prognosis 
will depend upon the part which it has penetrated. If it has 
entered deeply into the toe of the frog, the probability is that the 
navicular joint has been wounded, or probably the tendon of the 
flexor at its insertion into the pedal bone, either of which are very 
serious accidents. If the wound is further back, there is less risk 
of permanent injury, as the bulbous heels or cushion of the frog 
will bear a considerable amount of injury without permanent 
mischief. In any case the treatment should consist in cutting 
away the horn round the opening, so as to allow of a free escape 
of matter if it forms. At the same time inflammation should be 
kept under by cold "swabs" to the coronet, or by putting the whole 
foot into a bran poultice. 

Over-reaches, when slight, may be treated by the application 
of friar's balsam, or tincture of arnica in full strength, which will 
have a tendency to dry them up and prevent suppuration. If, 
however, the heel is very much bruised, a poultice must be applied, 
but even then a little tincture of arnica should be sprinkled on it. 
When the bruise is so severe that a slough or core comes away, 
the wound may be dressed with a piece of lint, dipped in a solution 
of nitrate of silver, eight grains to the ounce of distilled water, 
and over this a bran poultice. In most cases, however, it is better 
to foment the part well and then apply the tincture of arnica neat. 

A bruise on a thin sole will sometimes cause matter to form, 
in which case the horn must be cut away, and the case treated as 



FEVERS. 417 

for quittor. Before matter forms, the horn should be reduced, and 
the foot should be placed in a cold bran poultice. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES. 

Fevers — Anasarca — Glanders — Farcy. 

FEVERS. 

The horse is very rarely subject to fever as a disease of itself, 
independently of inflammation, under which head I have already 
described catarrhal fever, both of the simple kind and when epi- 
demic, and known as influenza. Indeed, all the important inflam- 
mations of the body are attended with fever; but in them the 
local affections are evidently more serious than the general disturb- 
ance of the system, which we call by the name of fever. By many 
veterinarians it is doubted whether fever ever shows itself in the 
horse without inflammation ; but occasionally it may be observed 
ander the form of simple fever, presenting all the symptoms 
which accompany ordinary inflammation, but without any such 
complication, and more rarely of the typhoid form, which now 
sometimes attends influenza and other epidemics. 

Simple fever shows itself by dulness and reluctance to move, 
a staring coat, and cold legs and feet, with increased warmth of 
the body. The pulse is quick, soft, and variable — breathing a little 
accelerated, but not much — appetite entirely lost — bowels confined, 
and urine scanty. These symptoms continue for two or three 
days, and then either go on into the typhoid form, or they are 
complicated by inflammation in some organ of the body. The 
treatment merely consists in giving a mild dose of physic, followed 
by a febrifuge drink, such as the following : — 

Take of Spirit of Nitrous Ether 1 oz. 

Nitre 3 to 5 drachms. 

Tincture of Ginger 2 drachms. 

Camphor Mixture 6 oz. 

Mix, and give twice a day.* 

Typhoid fever sometimes appears as an epidemic, occurring 
either as a sequel to influenza, or in its pure form, without any 

* Nothing in the veterinary Materia Medica will cure fever so certainly 
and successfully as aconite ; and for this purpose give 10 to 15 drops of the 
tincture of the root two to three times in the twenty-four hours, and allow 
plentv of pure air and cold water. — Editor. 

2d 



418 THE HORSE. 

complication. The latter condition is, however, extremely rare. 
In its early stage, it can scarcely be recognised or distinguished 
from simple fever; but in the course of two or three days the 
strength is so much reduced, the breath is so fetid, and the mouth 
is loaded with such a black discharge from the tongue and gums, 
that the nature of the disease is clearly manifested. The pulse is 
very low, the languor increases, and there is often more or less 
delirium. The course of the disease is extremely rapid, and in 
five or six days a strong horse will sink beneath its powers, refusing 
food, and dying without any attempt to rally. The treatment 
should be of the most generous kind, as soon as the bowels have 
been gently moved, which should be effected, if possible, by injec- 
tion. Then give a ball two or three times a day, composed thus : — 

Take of Carbonate of Ammonia . . . . \ to 1 drachm. 

Powdered Ginger 1 drachm. 

Powdered Yellow Bark .... 3 drachms. 

Syrup enough to make into a ball. 

This should be washed down with a quart of ale caudle, and hay 
tea should be allowed as the drink ad libitum; or, if there is 
diarrhoea, rice-water may be used in the same way. Few ca?es, 
however, will recover, in spite of every exertion and careful treat- 
ment on the part of the attendant.* 

* As will be perceived by the text, typhoid fever is of rare occurrence in 
Great Britain ; and when it does occur, it is mostly as a sequel to influenza 
and other debilitating diseases. Indeed, this may with truth be said of all 
countries where the land is dry by nature, or made so by drainage and culti- 
vation. 

Until of late years, no mention is made in the books on hippopathology, 
of " typhosus" as one of the ailments of the equine species. Typhoid fever 
among horses in different parts of this country is of yearly occurrence, and 
is known by several and distinct names — depending upon the chief sjnptom 
observed. Thus, in Kentucky, and the South West, it is called "black 
tongue," because that organ, as in man under similar circumstances, varies 
in color from a deep purple to black. It is known in New York as cerebro- 
spinal-meningitis, because it is thought by M. Liautard, to present symptoms 
similar to those when man is the subject. In Delaware it is named " choking 
distemper." In the West it is " putrid fever " so called from the fetid smell 
emanating from t'ae diseased animal. 

Isaiah Michener, Esq., of Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in a lecture 
delivered before the class of the Philadelphia Veterinary College, calls it 
" paralysis of the par-vagum," on account of the loss of power to swallow. 
The multiplicity of names given to the disease can do no possible harm, 
whilst, at the same time, they serve to point out to us the chief symptoms, so 
that they maybe grouped together and as a whole, under the head of tj phosus 
or typhoid fever. 

The symptoms differ with the intensity of the attack, but at first they are 
very obscure and likely to be overlooked, a general debility being the most 
noticeable ; and in a day or two a difficulty in swallowing will be ob- 



ANASARCA. 419 

ANASARCA. 

Anasarca, or moor-ill, occurs chiefly among horses turned 
out in marshes or low commons, and may readily be known by the 
general swelling of the body, increasing by gravitation in the legs 
during the standing posture, but showing itself chiefly in the lower 
side of the body in the early morning, when the horse has been 
lying down all night. The disease is now rare, but it occasionally 
appears under the circumstances above described. The treatment 
must be by acting on the kidneys, the following being a useful 
recipe for the purpose : — 

Take of Nitre 4 drachms. 

Powdered Resin 3 drachms. 

Ginger 1 drachm. 

Spirit of Nitrous Ether lh oz. 

Warm Water . . 2 pints. 

Mix and give as a drench every night. 

served. Soon the horse staggers and is unable to walk, and in the majority 
of cases, lies or falls down unable to rise again. 

There are other symptoms presented in this affection which might be 
described, but are unnecessary, as they are common alike to other debilita- 
ting diseases, such as the quickened and wiry pulse, heaviness of the head, 
fetid breath, shortened breathing, and wasting of the muscles of the body. 
The animal dies in from three to ten days, though sometimes lasting as long 
as two weeks, a loathsome sight, with nothing but skin and ligament covering 
the bones. 

No disease of the horse can, after the third day, or when the animal is 
unable to stand, be mistaken for typhoid fever, if it be not paralysis, which 
occurs only in single and separate cases, whereas, in typhoid fever it is 
almost always epizootic (epidemic) , attacking every horse on the place and 
even neighborhood. 

The causes of typhoid fever in the horse do not differ from those that give 
rise to typhus in man, namely, miasma arising from level land, decaying 
vegetable matter, and stagnant water. 

On many splendid country seats overlooking our noble rivers and bays 
along the eastern coast, the stables are often, for the sake of convenience, 
located near the river banks, with sometimes pools of stagnant water in the 
immediate vicinity. This is a fruitful source of this disease, especially during 
an unusually rainy season. In treating it, it is especially important that the 
horse be removed from the neighborhood of the miasma to a dry location : 
thus the cause will cease, and a cure is more likely to be effected. 

Give the following in a drench, morning, noon, and night : 

Cold Water 1 pint. 

Powdered Carbonate of Ammonia h oz. 

Capsicum 1 drachm. 

Powdered Pimento Berries \ oz. 

Tincture Nux Vomica 20 drops. 

If the horse is unable to stand, give him a good bed and turn him from 
one side to the other twice daily, to prevent sores on the body ; and if 
unable to swallow, drench him with cold water and meal several times 
daily — adding thirty drops of commercial sulphuric acid to the drench.— 
Editor. 



420 THE HORSE. 

GLANDERS. 

This frightful constitutional disease appears to consist 
in the generation of some poisonous matter in the blood, which 
nature attempts to throw off by establishing a discharge in the 
nostrils. It is perfectly incurable, and therefore it is only neces- 
sary to study its symptoms, with a view to distinguish it from 
ozena, with which alone it is liable to bo confounded. Its chronic 
character and insidious onset will serre to distinguish it from 
catarrh and strangles* 

At its commencement, it seems to be confined to the internal 
lining of the nostrils, which is not reddened, as in chronic catarrh 
(ozena), but presents a leaden or purple colour, sometimes of a deep 
shade, but at first generally very light and pale. This is accom- 
panied by a thin acrid discharge, transparent, and without odor. 
Generally, one nostril only is affected, which in this country is 
more frequently the left, and in France the right ; but why this 
should be so has never yet been even conjectured with any appear- 
ance of probability. This state of things usually only lasts for,a 
few weeks, but it may go on for an indefinite time, and is recog- 
nised as the first stage; during which the health does not suffer, 
and the horse can, and often does, go on with his ordinary work. 
It may be distinguished from ozena by the purple color of the lin- 
ing membrane, and by the transparency and freedom from smell 
of the discharge. 

In the second stage, the discharge increases in quantity, and 
though still watery and transparent, it is slightly sticky, indicating 
the presence of mucus. The lymphatic glands below the jaw en- 

* To produce putrid disease amongst horses is an easy matter, for, by 
neglect of the ordinary laws of health, it Avill soon show itself in Glanders 
or Farcy. The blood of horses in badly-ventilated stables soon acquires toxi- 
cal properties, from effete matter or miasma exhaled from and inhaled by 
the lungs, or even in some cases by direct inoculation. This poison, when 
introduced, acts as a ferment, so that the development of a peculiar train 
of symptoms quickly follows by the operation of the principle of catalysis 
(resolving matter into new compounds). This is the character of glanders, 
a malignant disease, infectious and contagious. This specific blood-poison 
is produced by placing horses and mules in conditions that depress their 
vital powers, as badly-ventilated stables, poor food, overwork, exhaustion 
from debilitating disease, &c. 

Many cases of glanders, since the discovery of an anti-ferment, have been 
cured, and few cases of farcy die from it. Treatment. — Half-ounce doses 
of the sulphite of soda three times daily, five grains powdered Spanish fly 
once in the day, and allow good, generous diet. The soda checks the fer- 
mentation, and the Spanish fly acts as a tonic, and at the same time removes 
effete matter from the system. When the lungs in glanders are diseased, 
which is known when the horse has a cough, the case then is more like con- 
sumption, and cannot be cured. It is then called equinia ylandulosa, or 
glanders with tubercles of the lungs. — Editok. 



GLANDERS— FARCY. 421 

large, and become adherent to the bone, feeling hard to the touch, 
and almost like exostosis. Here the permanent character of the 
discharge and the adherence of the glands to the bone are the 
diagnostic signs from ozena. 

In the third stage, the discharge increases rapidly, and be- 
comes yellow and opaque — in fact, it is pure pus. If the nose is 
carefully examined, its lining membrane will be seen to present 
one or more sores, with depressed centres and ragged edges, and 
surrounded by small varicose vessels leading to them from all 
directions. In proportion to the extent of the local mischief, con- 
stitutional disturbance is displayed. The appetite fails — the horse 
loses flesh and spirits — the coat is turned the wrong way — the 
skin is hidebound, and the legs fill slightly during the day, but go 
down at night — the nose is, at last, frightfully ulcerated, the sores 
spreading to the larynx — ulcers break out on the body — and the 
horse finally dies, worn to a skeleton. 

When the diagnosis of the disease is confirmed, as it is undoubt- 
edly highly contagious, both to other horses and to man himself, 
the patient ought to be destroyed. By the use of green food, his 
life may be prolonged for a time, and a certain amount of work 
may be got out of him ; but the risk of contagion is too great to 
be incurred, and no man who regards his own welfare, and that 
of his neighbors, should keep a glandered horse. 

FARCY. 

This disease appears to depend upon the development of the 
same poison as in glanders; but the attempt at elimination is made 
in the skin, instead of the mucous membrane lining the nose. A 
horse inoculated with glanders may exhibit farcy, and vice versd ; 
so that the essence of the disease is the same, but its seat is a 
different tissue. 

Farcy usually shows itself first by one or two small hard knots 
in the skin, called " farcy buds." These soon soften, and contain 
a small quantity of pus ; but as this is rapidly absorbed, the lym- 
phatics which convey it into the circulation inflame; and at a 
short distance another bud is formed, and then another, and 
another. These buds are usually met with in the thin skin cover- 
ing the inside of the thighs and arms, or the neck and lips. They 
vary from the size of a shilling to that of a half-crown ; and as 
they increase in numbers, the skin becomes cedematous. In pro- 
cess of time, the general system suffers, as in glanders, and the 
horse dies, a miserable, worn-out object. No treatment can be 
relied on to cure the disease ; and as it is equally contagious with 
glanders, every farcied horse ought at once to be destroyed. The 
hard nature of the buds, and the thickened lymphatics extending 
like cords between, clearly make known the nature of the disease. 
36 



422 THE HORSE. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

SHOEING.* 

The art of shoeing appears to have heen unknown to the ancients, 
although the need of it was greatly felt, especially in the rough 
campaigning and long marches constantly recurring in those warlike 
times. In several campaigns the cavalry was rendered worthless 
and was disbanded on account of the bad condition of their horses' 
feet, and the animals themselves were relieved from duty until 
their hoofs were restored. The value of a horse depended more 
upon the soundness and strength of his hoof than upon any other 
qualification, and various methods of rendering it harder and more 
serviceable were proposed by Xenophon and other early writers. 
But while acknowledging the importance of a sound, vigorous hoof, 
and striving to harden and preserve it, it does not seem to have 
occurred to them to protect it by fastening to it by nails, a band 
or shoe of iron, although Beckman states that horse shoes and 
nails have been found in the graves of some German and Vandal 
tribes of unknown antiquity in the northern part of Germany. 
To William the Conqueror tradition ascribes the introduction of the 
practice of shoeing into England, whence it has remained until the 
present time. 

When the delicacy of organization of the foot of the horse is 
considered, its extreme sensitiveness and wonderful adaptability for 
the purpose of locomotion, the enormous wear and tear incident 
upon constant use in the service of man, its liability to abuse and 
injury, and the consequent suffering of the dumb animal and pecuni- 
ary loss to the owner, it is surprising that there has been so little real 
improvement in the art. While the past half century has been 
so fruitful of results in almost every other branch of industry, it 
has witnessed few or none in this. This is due in great measure 
to the indifference of the artisan to whom the care of the horse's 
foot is committted, who, ignorant of the nature and structure 
of the living member before him, so recklessly handles and 
mutilates it, in much the same manner as his ancestors years 
before him. 

The feet of most of the horses of the present day, and especially 
those used for drafty purposes and heavy work in our large cities, 
are in bad condition, and more subjects are brought to the knack- 

* This article was prepared at our request, by a gentleman who has given 
the subject much time, and patient investigation. — Editob. 



*»f If 




SHOEING. 423 

er's yard from this cause than all others combined. A healthy, 
vigorous foot is the exception even among horses used for lighter 
work. Brittle, shelly hoofs, ridged and dished, indicating internal 
derangement, withered frogs with the centre arch or stay entirely 
absorbed, high heels bound up by hard, unyielding crust, all these 
deformities and many others are chargeable in some degree to bad 
shoeing. Sometimes injuries are attributed to the blacksmith that 
are due to accident or brutality of the driver, but in as far as our 
system of shoeing interferes with the natural functions of the foot, 
it will induce disease. 

The question then presents itself, "Why not teach the mechanic 
the design of the structure, to the repair of which his lifetime is 
devoted ? You may command him to treat your horse as you direct, 
but you must convince his judgment, if you expect obedience at all 
times ; as well dictate to a physician what medicines he shall give 
your child at some stages of disease, and depend on him at others ; 
he will treat the case in his own way, or not at all ; the head, heart 
and hand must accord to make perfect work. 

Our public schools have been a great power in the advancement 
of the mechanical arts ; much of the labor-saving machinery now 
building up great wealth in the country, is the fruit of the philo- 
sophical truths there disseminated, and the improved social condi- 
tion of the laboring classes is due to their influence. We have 
schools of science, and colleges for the instruction of students in 
the treatment and cure of horses, yet we expect those whose daily 
business is to perform important surgical operations upon a deli- 
cately organized member, to be reasonably successful, without 
having learned the alphabet of their profession. There are among 
them, individuals, intelligent and ingenious, who would be glad 
of an opportunity of testing the validity of their practice by an 
appeal to the condition of the hidden springs, levers, pulleys, 
cushions, and powers comprising the mechanism of the feet and legs 
explained by those who have made such their lifelong study. Many 
of these have, by long experience, discovered for themselves a fair 
system of shoeing, and are successful in the treatment and preven- 
tion of injury, but, ignorant of physiology, are unable to transmit 
their knowledge to others with sufficient reason to establish its 
truth. 

To such fully educated to their profession, we must look for im- 
provement in the art, and we hope that the day is not far distant 
when America may be able to boast of her veterinary colleges and 
schools for farriers, as of her other institutions of learning. 

A small proportion of the pecuniary loss annually sustained in 
our large cities alone, would support sudh an institution, the good 
results of which would be incalculable. But while all thinking 
men admit the benefits which must result from its establishment, 



424 THE HORSE. 

it is too customary to regard the idea as visionary and impracticable, 
and maintain that the craft would not avail themselves of its advan- 
tages. 

At first, doubtless, only the most intelligent would do so, but 
these, applying the theoretical knowledge received there to the 
commonest details and every-day experience of the smithy, would 
convince the most unreasoning that labor, when directed by skill 
and judgment, is more saving of money, strength, and material, 
than when unenlightened and unreasoning; and soon public 
opinion would force their more ignorant brethren to follow their 
example. A great painter was once asked how he mixed his colors. 
" With brains, sir," was the apt reply. When this is the rule 
and not the exception, we may indeed look for decided improve- 
ment in the art, the dumb animal be relieved of much suffering, 
and the community from unnecessary loss. 

Veterinarians may propose theories, but lack the practical expe- 
rience and opportunity of observation which the workmen alone 
can have, while the number of the latter who have combined scien- 
tific education with a thorough knowledge of the details of their 
profession, has been too small to stamp any decided character 
upon it. 

With but very few exceptions the entire literature of shoeing is 
European, and to these writers the American public is indebted 
for all knowledge outside of that which an inquiring mind will 
gather from individual observation. 

If horse owners would resort to the books for physiological facts, 
study their own horses, and use their own judgment, they would in 
most cases discover the best style of shoeing for their particular 
use. 

Countries and sections differ greatly in the fashion of horse-shoes, 
and the manner of fitting them to the foot, but the general princi- 
ples are the same. 

We do not pretend to advocate any particular form of shoe, nail, 
or system of shoeing as an ultimatum of success, but wish to draw 
the attention of horse owners to the importance of the subject, that 
they may judge for themselves, the practice best suited to their 
own animals, and may arrive at a more accurate conception and a 
better appreciation of the hazard of a sole dependence on the gene- 
ral ignorance of blacksmiths. 

A careful study of the construction of the foot, as explained in 
this work, will show the necessity of great caution and intelligence 
in its treatment; more than is usually displayed by our mechanics. 
This will be better understood by a reference to the member itself 
by dissection, which is practicable to most farmers, as they may 
frequently obtain specimens in their vicinity, and are possessed of 
the facilities for examination. 



SHOEING. 425 

Sever the foot at the upper joint of the pastern bone, trace the 
veins, arteries and tendons, as suggested by the description ; note 
the principal resistant parts affected by locomotion, the position of 
the coronary bone and its inclination within the hoof (not as fre- 
quently engraved entirely without or above it, and vertical when 
at rest), the navicular bone and joint, the tendons and sheath, with 
the action of each, the elastic property of the fatty heels, the 
tough, springy frog, its shape and position, the structure of the 
coffin bone, sole, crust and bars, and their mutual relations. Let 
the examination be careful, and guided by reflection, with due 
regard to each particular hoof, fore and hind, near and off, and 
condition of health. Form no hasty conclusions from partial in- 
vestigations, and study for practical benefit, not for a show of wis- 
dom. A wooden vice, butcher's saw, chisel, knives and nippers, 
are about all the instruments necessary, and after becoming ac- 
quainted with the natural tone of the crust, the operation may be 
facilitated by the use of warm water to soften the horn. 

If this has excited an interest in the subject, let the student ex- 
periment with the shoeing of his own horses, young and old ; having 
the entire control and supervision of their working, driving, stabling, 
pasturing and shoeing, he must learn something, if but his own 
ignorance. If resident of a country of light sandy soil, and the 
nature of the work will allow, the hind feet, if not all, might be 
left unshod to illustrate natural development; we have seen such 
with hard glossy hoofs, that could travel over turnpike roads with 
a light load, without breaking the crust or flinching on the frog. 

The detail of horse-shoeing has been subjected to such ad vers; 
teachings by different authors (many of whom have but repeated 
palpable errors of their predecessors without attempt at originality), 
that it would be impossible to produce positive rules that will not 
meet with opposition, but the indications of disease, may be related 
without assigning their particular cause, of which there is much 
difference of opinion and uncertainty. 

The conditions of a good, sound foot as apparent, are a smooth, 
glossy, resilient crust, almost circular were it continued around at 
the bars, but fuller on the outside quarter, which difference is sel- 
dom seen on a foot that has been shod a dozen times ; a concave 
sole not too dry and hard ; a full frog elastic throughout, with ita 
centre or frog stay complete ; heels sufficiently low and free from 
crust to bear their share of the springiness of action, and full and 
well developed to allow freedom to the bones and tendons in their 
movements. In horses the general rule is that dark hoofs are 
harder than light ones. The internal organization is in conformity 
with the external, the healthy state has been already described 
under the heads of bones, muscles, &c. In disease, we find within 
a concave, furrowed crust, the elastic process or bed of the same 
36* 



426 



THE HORSE. 




l"lti. 20. — A SOUND FOKE FOOT PREPARED FOR THE SHOE. 

A. The heel of the crust. E E. The angles between the heels and bars 

B. The toe. where corns appear. 
CC. The quarters of the crust. F F. The concave surface. 
D D. The bars as they should be left with G G. The bulbous heels. 

frog between them. H. Cleft. 

form, and a dished coffin bone ; under a convex sole a coffin bone 
turned up in front by absorption and flattened like the hoof, spongy 
and deficient in bony matter, the sensible sole diminished and the 
horny sole increased in substance ; in long-standing cases of con- 
tracted heels, the interior organizations are alike reduced. Which- 
ever may be the primary change, internal or external, or whether 
either be a result of bad shoeing, no satisfactory solution has yet 
been given. Veterinarians wrangle over their favorite theories, 
charge one another with causing the diseases they profess to pre- 
vent, and are so completely antagonistic in their doctrines, that 
the public cannot be confident of truth, in implicit reliance upon 
the assertions of any. 

In comparing the horse's foot with the human, we must be care- 
ful not to fall into error ; their relations to the body are the same, 
but to understand the comparative structures, we must imagine 
ourselves upon all fours, resting upon the finger and toe nails, our 



SHOEING. 427 

wrist and heel corresponding to the knee and hock-joints of the 
horse, though the bones are of different relative lengths and shape. 
The crust of the hoof is secreted in much the same manner as our 
nails, and growing downwards, or towards the extremities, slides 
over a laminated and highly sensitive bed, which, when injured, 
produces intense pain, on account of the unyielding nature of the 
crust, and the swelling consequent to inflammation. We may then 
realize the suffering produced by the prick of a horse-shoe nail, 
under a horn so much thicker than our finger or toe nails. 

As qualifications of resistance, and ease to superincumbent 
structures, we have, of the human foot, the main arch of the soles 
(which must be taken together to establish their completeness), 
and the transverse arch of the ball of the foot, displayed when the 
toes are brought to the ground. Of the horse there is the arch 
of the sole, and those formed by the heels and frog. The sole and 
coffin bone of the mule are more concave than those of the horse. 

As propellers and levers, we find the same action from heel to 
toe, as the body moves forward in progression. The horse having 
two sets of levers, one for the fore part of the body and one for 
the hind, all working in connection, must make exactly the same 
length of step with each foot to avoid interference. From this 
fact, we account for a frequent cause of forging and stumbling. 
Both horse and man accustom the motion of the body to the length 
of step ; if we then attempt to walk in a pair of shoes so much 
shorter than usual, as to cramp the toes and shorten the foot, we 
will be unable to carry the body as far with each motion from heel 
to toe, to correspond with our ordinary forward spring of the body ; 
the tendency, therefore (until we learn better), is to a short, quick, 
stumbling gait. Now, take a horse whose hoofs have been slowly 
growing in length for a month, every motion of his body trained to 
accord, pull off his shoes, which will be found (owing to the for- 
ward growth of the hoof) farther from the heels than when first 
applied, pare away the crust down to the sole, cut out a big notch 
at the toe for a clip, set the new shoe back within the front of the 
foot (more on the fore feet, as they are supposed to grow faster), 
then rasp off the outer part of the toe back to the shoes, and clench 
the nails as tight as possible. This is a common mode of shoeing; 
his shoes are too small for him ; he swings into a trot with the 
usual body motion, but the feet, all shortened, fail their part, 
while the fore feet, diminished more than the hind, are not thrown 
out quite as far, and the horse, unaccustomed to the change, dwells 
too long on them to escape a blow from behind. Weariness and 
laziness will also cause forging, by a tardy movement in front, and 
stumbling, by a failure to raise the toe sufficiently to avoid scrub- 
bing the ground when thrown forward. 

It is too common, especially in cities, among draught-horses, to 



428 



THE HORSE. 



use up the lower part of the crust too fast for its growth. If the 
human finger-nail be pierced with a fine needle in the manner of 
a horse-shoe nail driven through the crust of a hoof, it will be ob- 
served that the hole will remain, until the growth of the nail has 
carried it beyond the flesh ; that is, the fibres of horn once sepa- 
rated will never unite. Horses used for heavy work are shod with 
heavy shoes, thick toe and quarter clips, high calks and steel toes, 
and either because of the severe strain on the stones, the weight of 
the shoes and nails, the leverage of calks and toes, waste of crust to 
accommodate clips, or of all combined, they require shoeing about 
once in three weeks, and frequently oftener. At each shoeing, a 
little more crust and sole is taken off of the ground surface, a few 
more holes made (or nails driven into old ones, enlarging the aper- 
ture by working about and bending under the clenching iron). 
The surface of the crust is again rasped, diminishing the thick- 
ness, new furrows made to accommodate the clenches, and the horn 
burned and softened by a hot shoe each time. ' The blacksmith 
will insist that all these operations are necessary, but the fact is, 
he is using up material too fast, and we leave it to horse owners 
to judge by experiment, how these operations may be modified. 
The French method of bringing the points of the nails out low 
down on the surface of the hoof, appears rational, as it destroys 
the vitality of the crust to a less degree than our custom, and 
leaves a greater proportion of sound foot to bear the shocks. 

Our practice has been, after removing the old shoes (with care 
not to enlarge the old holes by dragging crooked nails through 
them), to pare off the crust and bars well down to the outer edge 
of the sole, without taking a shaving from the sole, frog, or inside 

of the bars. If the crust has 
not been broken by wear, 
this leaves the foot as near 
its natural shape as possi- 
ble, and a shoe must be 
made to fit it. For road- 
- sters, a narrow, light shoe 
is fitted to the crust in 
length and width, then 
made perfectly level, with- 
out twist or pritchell burs 
at the nail holes, and while 
shoeing, sufficiently hot, slightly 

touched to the crust, to mark any inequalities that may have been 
left after paring. Six nails are used, three on each side, dividing 
the space from about an inch from the centre of the toe, to the 
centre of the quarters. The nail holes are set well back from the 
outside edge, and made straight through the iron ; the nails are 




SHOEING. 429 

small, smoothed off with the hammer, and slightly bevelled on one 
side of the point; the position of the holes in the shoe brings 
the nails out low down on the surface of the crust, but care must 
be taken to start them in the centre of the holes, that the foot 
may not be cramped or forced out of its natural shape. The pro- 
jecting nail points are filed close to the hoof, that they may be 
broken off without twisting the nail, or enlarging the hole in the 
crust; the nails are then driven up, and the clenches turned over 
and hammered down. 

No rasp has been used, no crust wasted by mutilation for clips, 
and but little injury by nail holes; if the nails be of good iron, 
they are sufficient in number, and the light clenches on a sound 
foot, will hold the shoe perfectly tight, and will not cause abrasion 
of the legs in travelling. 

The foot presents what we might call a beautiful fit, the tender 
part of the frog is protected by the thickness of the shoe, while as 
it is renewed from within, the outside will be worn off by friction, 
and nature will keep it exactly low enough to obtain its necessary 
exercise ; moreover, by driving the nails straight through the mid- 
dle of the hole in the shoe, the foot will be free from that dis- 
agreeable, cramped feeling, we have imagined a horse to experience, 
when the nails are started at either side of the hole in the iron, 
forcing the more yielding fibres of horn to its centre. 

There have been many forms of shoes recommended by different 
authors, but few of which are used in this country. The French 
shoe has a convex ground surface, and the foot is fashioned to it, 
by leaving the quarters full, and the crust sloped off towards the 
toe and heels. Why the bearing should be taken off the heels we 
cannot imagine, and forcing the quarters to bear an undue amount 
of concussion would apparently induce quarter crack, but having 
had no experience with this shoe we may be wrong in our 
conclusions. 

Another fashion imitates an old shoe worn off at the toe, which 
is certainly an advantage to roadsters, as it would be to us, if we 
could buy new shoes to fit our feet exactly like the old ones. Some 
writers advocate nailing the shoe only upon the outside quarter, or 
with but two nails on the inside, toward the toe, with the idea of 
allowing unimpeded expansion of the crust when the foot strikes 
the ground. Inasmuch as nails injure the crust, the practice of using 
as few as possible is wise, but we have been unable to discover any 
expansion of the anterior half of the ground surface in hoofs that 
have never been shod. A careful examination will convince anyone 
that there is no mechanical necessity for such spreading, and from 
the nature of the organization of the foot, it is simply impossible; all 
the spring needful to the front of the crust is gained by the elasticity 
of its fibres. The line of bearing of the lower part of the fore leg. 



430 THE HORSE. 

is directed behind the centre of the foot, and the yielding points 
of the framework are the pastern, coronary and navicular joints ; 
as the upper part of the coronary bone works backward and down- 
ward, it, with the action of the tendon, slightly spreads the heels 
laterally, and the whole crust partakes of the movement, diminish- 
ing in effect towards the toe ; were the foot completely inelastic, the 
motion might be detected at the quarters, but the whole of a healthy 
foot is of a yielding nature ; the fatty heels, in particular, may be 
compressed like cork, while the frog resembles a piece of india- 
rubber, and there is a spring in every fibre of the crust. These 
conditions so far distribute motion, that there is practically none 
in the ground surface of the crust forward of the centre. 

From the fact of this style of shoe allowing free expansion, its 
advocates proclaim it a preventive of contracted heels (which, un- 
fortunately, is so prevalent among shod horses); but if, as we sup- 
pose, there be no spreading of the front part of the crust by pressure, 
a shoe nailed only at, and forward of the quarters, will not interfere 
with any natural movement of the heels. 

This disease (contracted heels), which has been described on 
page 409, appears to be an absorption or waste of a portion of 
the frog and fatty heels, accompanied by an undue secretion of 
crust at the posterior part of the foot, encroaching upon the pro- 
vince of the softer tissue of the heels. 

Many reasons have been assigned for this disturbance of the 
natural nutrition of the different parts, all or none of which may 
be correct, for no theory has yet been so clearly demonstrated and 
proven, as to leave the causes and nature of the disease beyond a 
doubt, but we have never known any tendency to contraction, in 
horses that have been shod in such manner as to allow the frog a 
fair amount of exercise, indicated by its position. 

An india-rubber shoe intended to be used as a cushion between 
the iron and the foot, has been designed, patented and tried, within 
the last two or three years, but we believe has failed to give gene- 
ral satisfaction. The rubber mashes out in a short time by con- 
cussion, and leaves a loose shoe. Good sole leather is much more 
durable. 

Until recently, the whole process of making the shoe was per- 
formed by hand, but now in the United States, the greater bulk is 
made by machinery, and at one immense establishment. 

The manufactory of Messrs. Burden & Sons, at Troy, New York 
state, with its six forging machines, turns out six shoes per second, 
and in four years made twenty-five thousand tons ; or calculating 
one and a half pounds to the shoe, thirty-seven million shoes. 
These shoes are of the very best iron, warranted to bend double 
cold, and to wear as long as any made by hand ; the iron used in 



SHOEING. 431 

their manufacture bearing a tensile strain of seventy-eight thousand 
pounds to the square inch. 

The power of the factory is gained by a large stream of water, 
with a head of seventy -two feet, acting on an overshot wheel sixty 
feet in diameter, with buckets twenty-two feet long and six feet 
four inches deep, the whole wheel weighing over three hundred 
tons. Connected with the establishment is a horse-shoe museum, 
comprising many hundred specimens of shoes of all ages and all 
countries, collected together at much expense with a view to im- 
provement upon the old types. There are now three different 
patterns manufactured, and they will furnish any other pattern 
desired, if ordered in sufficient quantities. The cost of the shoe to 
the blacksmith, is about a cent and a half per pound above the 
price of the iron. 

Independent of the immense curtailment of expense, the advan- 
tage of J machinery directed by one master mind over the old sys- 
em, or rather want of system of individual effort and incongruous 
labor, is great; and it should be the aim of the manufacturer, 
as self-interest will dictate, to study and experiment to attain the 
most desirable pattern, in width of web, seating, fullering, position 
of nail holes, and quality of iron, and the mechanics will necessarily 
adopt his improvements. 

In short, it should be an aim in shoeing a horse, as in man, to 
make a fit as neat and easy, and of as light material as would be 
adapted to its use, and experience has proven, that heavy shoes 
with high calks and toes, are not necessary for successful hauling 
over our city cobble stones, or hard roadways. 

In this article we have given no positive directions for shoeing, 
judging the art in its present state too imperfect to satisfy this 
progressive age, but have sought rather to stimulate inquiry and 
experiment, that may lead to improvement in the system. 




432 THE HORSE. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

OPERATIONS. 

Administration of Chloroform — Methods of confining the Horse — 
Bleeding — Firing — Setons and Rowels — Blistering — Castration 
— Docking and Nicking — Unnerving — Reduction of Hernia — 
Administration of Physic — Clysters — Back-Raking. 

ADMINISTRATION OF CHLOROFORM. 

The use op chloroform to procure insensibility to pain is a 
great aid to the operator on the horse, who without it acts under 
great difficulties, owing to the nervous twitch which the poor ani- 
mal gives at each touch of the knife. Under chloroform, however, 
he lies as if dead ; and as long as its effects continue, the most 
elaborate dissection may be conducted with comparative ease. 
There is some little danger of overdoing this powerful agent, but 
the risk is not so great as is generally supposed, and with ordinary 
care it is more than one thousand to one that no injurious effects 
are produced. 

The best and most simple apparatus for the purpose of 
administering chloroform is a common wire muzzle, to the upper 
edge of which a strip of leather six inches deep is stitched, and 
so arranged that it may be buckled round the upper part of the 
jaws. This insures that all the air inspired shall pass through the 
wires, and by covering them with a cap of very loose flannel, in 
which a few holes are cut to facilitate respiration, the muzzle may 
be made ready for use. The horse is first cast, after which the 
above apparatus is put on and buckled round the jaw, when on 
sprinkling the chloroform over the cap of flannel, it may be applied 
or removed in an instant, and the amount of anaesthesia regulated 
accordingly. Without some guard such as the wire affords, the 
chloroform runs over the nostrils and lips, and blisters them to a 
serious extent; but when it is used, such an accident can only 
occur from over-saturating the flannel. The necessary quantity of 
this powerful agent must be employed ; but when once it is found 
that a prick of a pin or other pointed instrument is borne without 
shrinking, the flannel may be withdrawn, and the operation quickly 
commenced, taking care to have an assistant ready to put it on 
again if the horse shows signs of returning sensibility to pain. 
Six or eight ounces of chloroform must be provided, as the quantity 
required is rather uncertain, the average dose being about three 
or four ounces. 

If casting is objected to, either from the absence of hobbles, 
or from fear of injury to the horse, a soft bed of straw should be 



METHODS OF CONFINING THE HORSE. 433 

provided, and a strong halter must be put over the muzzle ivith. 
two cords, one of which should be held by a man on each side. 
These will serve to guide the horse in falling; but it is extremely 
difficult to make sure of his going down whei-e he is wanted to lie; 
and there is also considerable time lost in securing him after he is 
down, which the safety of the operator imperatively requires. 
The effect of the chloroform must therefore be kept up for a much 
longer time than if it is given after the horse is cast and secured. 

METHODS OF CONFINING THE HORSE. 

There are various plans adopted by veterinary surgeons to 
bind the horse's limbs, so that he cannot injure himself or them 
when undergoing an operation. Even when chloroform is em- 
ployed, some coercion of this kind must generally be adopted, as 
directed in the last section ; for if it is given in the standing posi- 
tion, the horse is very apt to injure himself in falling, which is 
often accompanied by powerful convulsive motions, and moreover 
he cannot with certainty be placed in a suitable position. The 
plan adopted by Mr. Rarey is seldom suitable, because it can only 
be employed on subjects previously taught to go down without 
resistance, for the severe struggle which the untaught horse makes 
before he submits is calculated to produce injurious constitutional 
disturbance, and, moreover, it would sadly increase any of the 
various diseases of the limbs for which operations are so often per- 
formed. Sometimes, however, it might advantageously be intro- 
duced into veterinary surgery, as for instance in castration, when 
the colt will not suffer his hind legs to be touched, but even then 
it will be necessary to throw him two or three times, or he will be 
in such a state of arterial excitement that inflammation will be 
likely to follow. The usual methods of confinement are : 1st. 
The hobbles. 2d. The side line. 3d. The trevis, or brenk. 4th. 
The twitch and barnacles. 

Hobbles consist of four broad padded leather straps, provided 
with strong buckles, and long enough to encircle the pasterns. To 
each of these an iron ring is stitched, and to one of them a strong 
soft rope, six yards in length, is securely attached. Provided with 
four, or, if possible, five assistants, the operator buckles the hob- 
ble with the rope attached to the near fore leg, and the remaining 
three to the other legs. Then passing the rope through their rings, 
and through the first also, it is held by three assistants, the nearest 
of whom stands about a yard from the horse, so as to pull upwards 
as well as away from him ; a fourth assistant holds him by the 
head to keep him quiet, and to be ready to fall on it as soon as he 
is down, and the fifth stands at his quarters, ready to push him 
over on his off side. This place is sometimes occupied by the 
operator himself when he is short of hands. Casting should never 



434 THE HORSE. 

be attempted on any hard surface, a thick bed of straw being ne- 
cessary to prevent injury from the heavy fall which takes place. 
The hind legs should be brought as far forward as possible before 
beginning to pull the rope, and when the men do this they should 
do it "with a will," but without jerking, so as to take the horse 
off his guard, when he will resist much less stoutly than if he is 
allowed more time. As soon as the legs are drawn up together, 
the man at the quarters is quite safe from injury, and he may lean 
forcibly against that part, and force the horse over to the off side, 
upon which he falls : the assistant at the head keeping that part 
down, no further struggling takes place, and he is secured by pass- 
ing the end of the rope under the hobble rings between the fore 
and hind legs, and securing it with a hitch. Something more, 
however, is necessary to be done before any of the usual operations 
can be performed, as all of the legs are at liberty to a certain 
extent and the scrotum cannot be reached in safety. The fol- 
lowing further precautions must therefore be taken, varying ac- 
cording to the part to be operated on. 

For castration the horse should be cast on his near side, with 
a web halter in the usual place of a collar. The rope of the halter 
is then passed through the ring of the hobble on the off hind leg, 
and using it as a pulley the foot is drawn forcibly forward beyond 
the arm and firmly secured to the webbing round the neck, and 
bringing it back again it may be passed round the thigh above the 
hock (which should be guarded from friction by a soft cloth or 
leather), and again secured to the webbing. By these precautions 
the scrotum is completely exposed, and the hind legs cannot be 
stirred beyond the slight spasmodic twitch which extends to the 
whole body. 

To PERFORM ANY OPERATION ON THE FORE LEG, it must be 

taken out of its hobble, and drawn forward upon the straw by a 
webbing attached to its pastern, where it must be held by an assist- 
ant, the horse having little or no power over it in this position. 

The hind leg is secured in the same way as for castration, 
unless the fetlock is to be fired, when webbing must be applied to 
the thigh above the hock only. With most horses, however, firing 
can be performed without casting, by buckling up the fore leg, or 
by having it held by a competent assistant. 

When the horse is to be released, the hobbles are quietly un- , 
buckled in succession, beginning with the undermost hind leg. 

Several improved hobbles have been invented, but they are 
suited rather for the veterinary surgeon than for the ordinary 
horsemaster, who will only require them for castration and minor 
operations. 

The side line is sometimes used for securing one hind leg 
thus : — the long rope and single hobble only are required, the lat- 



CONFINING THE HORSE— BLEEDING. 435 

ter being buckled to the hind pastern, which is to be secured. The 
rope is then passed over the withers and brought back round the 
bosom and shoulder of the same side as the leg to which it is 
secured, and then passed inside the first part of the rope. By 
pulling at the end of this cord the hind leg is drawn up to the 
shoulder, and secured there with a hitch, but the plan is not nearly 
so safe as casting. 

The trevis or break consists of four strong posts driven into 
the ground, at the corners of a space six feet long by three feet 
wide. They are strongly braced together by wooden stays, three 
feet six inches from the ground on three sides, the fourth being 
left open for the horse to enter, after which this also is made good 
by a padded bar passed through stout iron rings fixed at three feet 
from the ground to the uprights. By means of this framework, to 
which sundry rings are bolted, the body of the horse is first 
securely confined by two broad bands under the belly and two 
above the shoulders and croup. Thus he can neither rear nor kick 
to any extent sufficient to free himself, and all that is necessary is 
to lay hold of any limb selected for operation, and confine it to one 
of the uprights, or to some other convenient point. This is the 
best plan to be adopted for firing and other operations on the legs, 
and if the belly-bands are wide, strong, and secure, chloroform may 
be administered in it, without the horse going down. 

The twitch is a short stick of strong ash, about the size of a 
mopstick, with a hole pierced near the end, through which is passed 
a piece of strong but small cord, and tied in a loop large enough 
to admit the open hand freely. This is passed over the upper lip 
close to the nostrils, and then, by twisting the stick, compression 
is made to a painful extent, which will keep horses quiet for any 
slight operation. Sometimes it is placed on the ear in preference, 
but in either case the effect is dependent on the pain produced. 

Barnacles consist in the application of pressure by means of 
the handles of a pair of pincers enclosing the muzzle, and held 
firmly by an assistant. They are, however, not so useful as the 
twitch. 

BLEEDING. 

In the early part of the present century bleeding was 
resorted to on every appearance of the slightest inflammation, and 
often without the slightest necessity. Many horses were regularly 
bled " every spring and fall," to prevent mischief, as was supposed ; 
but at last it always happened to every horse which lived long 
enough, that the more frequently blood was taken the more the 
operation was required, and when it was absolutely wanted to lower 
the heart's action, such a quantity of blood must be taken that 
the system was reduced to a dangerous degree. Stallions wero 



436 THE HORSE. 

constantly submitted to this treatment, and mares as long us they 
were worked, so that in course of time it has happened to the 
horse, as it has also to man himself, that the horrible abuse of the 
lancet for two or three consecutive generations has completely 
changed the type of the diseases to which they are both subject. 
Inflammation does not now follow the same course that it used to 
do, but is of a much milder type, and the attendant fever is in- 
clined to assume a typhoid character, if lowering measures are 
pushed to any great extent. An attempt has been made to account 
for this change in human diseases by the alteration in the habits 
of the present generation, which are certainly more temperate than 
those of the previous one ; but in the case of the horse the reverse 
holds good, for he is now stimulated by more corn than ever. The 
only point, as far as I can make out, in which the horse and his 
master have been similarly maltreated, is in the abuse of the lan- 
cet, which undoubtedly may account for the change in the type 
of their diseases to which I have alluded, and it is, therefore, rea- 
sonable to refer it to this cause. But though this powerful agent 
has been thus abused, we must not be deterred from having re- 
course to it when severe inflammation occurs in the horse. Some- 
times there is no time to wait for the effects of a slower remedy, 
even if there is one which will be sufficiently powerful to control 
the heart's action. The only sensible plan in such case is to choose 
the lesser of the two evils, and to save life, or the integrity of the 
organ attacked, as the case may be, by abstracting blood, always 
remembering that this is to be avoided as long as it is safe to do 
so, but that when it is decided on, a sufficient quantity must be 
taken to produce a sensible effect, without which there is no at- 
tendant good to counterbalance the evil. 

Bleeding is either performed in the jugular vein, when the 
whole system is to be affected ; or when a part of the body only is 
inflamed, it may be desirable to abstract blood locally, as for in- 
stance from the toe or from the plate vein, in inflammation of the 
foot, and in ophthalmia from the vein which lies on the face just 
below the eye. 

The instruments used are either the lancet or the fleam, the 
former being the safer of the two, but requiring some practice to 
manage it properly. In bleeding from the jugular vein a string 
is sometimes tied round the neck below the part to be opened, 
which is four or five inches below the fork in the vein in the upper 
part of the neck. The skilled operator, however, makes pressure 
with his left hand answer the purpose of causing the vein to rise, 
and during this state either uses the lancet with his right or the 
fleam with the aid afforded by the blow of a short stick, called a 
" blood stick." When the blood begins to flow, the edge of the 
bucket which catches it is pressed against the same part, and as 



BLEEDING— FIRING. 437 

long as this is continued a full stream will run tntil faintness 
occurs. After sufficient blood has been taken, the two lips of the 
wound are raised between the fingers, and a small common pin 
passed through both, when the point is cut off and some tow is 
twisted round, by which the edges are kept together and the pin 
is retained in position. In a couple of days the pin may be with- 
drawn without disturbing the tow, and the wound will heal with 
little or no deformity. Sometimes the blood continues to flow 
beneath the skin after it is pinned, and a swelling takes place in 
consequence, which is called ecchymosis. When this happens, 
cold water should be freely applied and the head kept up by rack- 
ing to the manger. 

The quantity op blood necessary to be taken will vary accord- 
ing to circumstances, and can scarcely be fixed from the appearance 
of the blood drawn, but a repetition of the operation may be de- 
cided on if the clot of the blood, after standing, is very concave 
at the top (cupped), or if it is very yellow (buffed), and especially 
if both these signs are present. In inflammation of a severe char- 
acter less than six quarts of blood will seldom lower the pulse 
sufficiently to be of much service, and sometimes seven or eight 
quarts even must be taken from a large plethoric animal. 

Inflammation op the vein will sometimes supervene upon 
bleeding, the symptoms being a slight swelling appearing in the 
evening, or the next clay, with a little oozing from the wound. 
These are soon followed by a hard cord-like enlargement of the 
vein, which feels hot to the touch, and the parts at the angle of 
the jaw swell considerably. The consequence generally is that the 
vein is obliterated, occasioning some disturbance to the circulation, 
especially when the head is held down, as it is at grass. The 
treatment consists in cold applications as long as there is heat, the 
lotion recommended at page 316 being generally useful. When 
the heat has subsided, and the vein remains enlarged, the binio- 
dide of mercury will procure the absorption of the new deposit, by 
rubbing it in as recommended at page 300.* 

TIRING. 

The purpose for which the heated iron is employed is twofold ; 
first, to produce immediate counter-irritation, by which the pre- 
vious inflammation is reduced ; and secondly, to cause the forma- 
tion of a tight compress over the part, which lasts for some months. 
It is the fashion to deny the existence of the latter effect of this 
operation ; but every practical man must be aware that it follows 

* Bleeding in veterinary practice is by no means so general as formerly, 
the substitution of pure air, cold water and aconite, except in diseases of 
the head, proving very satisfactory. — Editoe. 
37* 



438 THE HORSE. 

upon firing to a greater or less extent, accordiig to circumstances 
but always lasting for a few months, until the skin stretches to its 
previous condition. The blemish which it leaves, and the pain 
which it occasions, both during and after the application of the 
irons, should cause it to be avoided when any equally useful substi- 
tute can be employed ; but, unfortunately, there are many cases 
where it stands without a rival, as being at once the safest and the 
most efficient remedy which can be adopted. Blisters and setons 
can be made to cause the same amount of counter-irritation ; but 
the inflammation accompanying the former often extends beneath 
the skin, and increases the mischief it was intended to relieve ; 
while the latter has no effect whatever in producing pressure upon 
the parts beneath. The pain of firing can be relieved entirely at 
the time of the operation by chloroform; but the subsequent 
smarting is quite as bad, and this is beyond the reach of any 
anaesthetic. Independently, however, of the interests of the master, 
it is also to the advantage of the horse to get thoroughly cured ; 
for if he is not, he will either work on in misery, or he will be con- 
signed to the knacker's yard ; and, therefore, the adoption of the 
most efficacious plan of treatment, even if somewhat the most pain- 
ful, is the best for both. 

Firing may be performed standing, by the use of the side 
line for the hind leg, or by fixing up one fore leg when the other 
is to be operated on. There is, however, nothing like the break or 
trevis, where more than a slight extent of surface is to be lined. 
The firing-iron should have a smooth edge, about the thickness of 
a worn shilling ; and it should be heated to the point when it shows 
a dull red in the dark. When the disease for which the irons are 
used is slight, the skin should not be penetrated ; but in bad cases, 
where the mischief is great, and particularly when it is wanted to 
have a good permanent bandage, the cauterization must be deeper; 
but this requires some practical knowledge to decide. The hair 
of the part should be cut very closely with the scissors, or shaved ; 
then, having secured the leg, the iron is to be steadily but rapidly 
passed in parallel lines over the skin, making just the proper pres- 
sure which is required to burn to the requisite depth. A light 
brown mark should be left, which shows that the proper effect has 
been produced ; and the color should be uniform, unless it is de- 
sired to penetrate deeper at certain parts, which is sometimes 
practised with advantage. The lines are sometimes made in a 
slanting direction round the leg, and at others straight up and 
down ; but it is useless to describe the details of this operation, 
which can only be learned by watching its performance by another 
hand. Badly done firing is always an eyesore ; but when the lines 
are evenly drawn, and they have healed without any sloughs, 
caused by irregular or excessive pressure, they show that a master- 



FIRING— SETONS AND ROWELS. 439 

Land has been at work, and that the poor beast has been treated 
scientifically. In very severe diseases, a blister is sometimes ap- 
plied over the part, immediately after the firing; but this can 
seldom be required, and as it aggravates the pain tenfold, it should 
be avoided, if possible. On the following day, a little neat's-foot 
oil should be gently rubbed, or brushed with a feather, over the 
leg; and this should be repeated daily, until the swelling which 
comes on has nearly subsided. Less than three months' rest 
should never be allowed for the operation to have its full effect, as, 
if the horse is put to work before that time has elapsed, the dis- 
ease will almost certainly return. Indeed, it is far better to allow 
double this time, especially if the horse is wanted for fast work. 

SETONS AND BOWELS. 

Setons are pieces of tape or lamp cotton, passed through and 
beneath the skin, leaving the two ends hanging out, either tied 
together or with a knot upon each. The latter is the safer plan, 
as the loop is always liable to be caught on a hook or other pro- 
jecting body. The needle with which the passage is effected has 
a spear point, slightly turned up, and an eye at the other end (see 
fig. 22), through which the tape or cotton is threaded. The 




FlQ. 22. — SETON NEEDLES ONE QUARTER SHE. 

ordinary one is about nine or ten inches long, and by its means a 
tape or piece of lamp cotton, smeared with blister cerate, may be 
passed through a long track of the cellular membrane, by pinching 
up the skin into a fold, and piercing this close to the body with 
the needle, which is then to be carried straight through. On 
drawing the tape out of the eye, it must be tied in a large knot at 
each end, which will prevent its slipping out. In three or four 
days, a profuse discharge will come on, and it must ke kept up, if 
necessary, by repeated applications of blister cerate, or digestive 
ointment, as may be necessary. The ends should be sponged 
occasionally, to remove the accumulated matter. 

A smaller curved needle, about five or six inches long (see 
lower figure, 22) is used for introducing a seton into the frog, or 
beneath the eye. For the former operation, a twitch is first 
applied, and the foot is then buckled up to the arm, as described 
at page 167. The needle then, armed with the tape, greased with 



4-40 THE HORSE. 

blister cerate, and a little oil to lubricate the surface, is thrust in 
at the heel and out at the cleft of the frog, takiug care not to go 
deep enough to wound the tendon as it passes over the navicular 
bone. The needle is then forcibly drawn through, and the tape 
knotted, as already described. The openings must be kept clean 
by sponging daily ; and in three or four weeks the tape will have 
nearly worked its way out, when it may be withdrawn. 

Rowels are now seldom employed, being very unmanageable 
plans for causing counter-irritation. An incision, about an inch 
long, is made in the skin, selecting a part where it is loosely at- 
tached, and into this a blunt instrument, called a " cornet," is 
pushed, and worked about in all directions, until the skin is sepa- 
rated from the subjacent parts for a circle with a diameter of from 
two to three inches. Into this a piece of thick leather of that 
diameter, with a hole in the middle, is inserted, previously having 
smeared it with blister cerate ; and the part is then left to nature. 
In a few days, a discharge of matter comes on, which must be 
washed on occasionally; and in the course of time, the leather, if 
allowed, would find its way out by ulceration. Before, however, 
this takes place, it is generally removed. 

BLISTERING. 

When it is decided to blister any part, the hair should be 
cut off as closely as possible ; the ointment is then rubbed in with 
the hand for ten minutes, leaving a good quantity smeared on the 
surface. If the legs are to be blistered, the heels should be pro- 
tected by lard. Considerable itching is caused after the first two 
or three days, and many horses, if allowed, gnaw the part to such 
an extent as to cause a serious blemish. It is therefore necessary 
to keep the head away, which is done by putting a " cradle" on 
the neck. The irritation of loose straw is very aggravating, and 
the stall or box should either be bedded with tan, or sawdust, or 
with used litter, so damp as to lie smoothly. It is generally the 
practice to put the blistered horse on a bare floor; but he will often 
do great harm to his legs and feet (which are of course unsound, 
or they would not be treated in this way), by constantly stamping 
from the pain occasioned while the blister is beginning to rise 
When the legs are stiff and sore from the swelling, he stands stiL 
enough, but at first there is nothing of this kind to keep him quiet. 
James's blister, which is very mild, and useful for trifling diseases 
f the legs, or for bringing on the hair after "broken knee," can 
■enerally be used without a cradle ; but even with it, horses will 
sometimes gnaw themselves, and it is better not to run any risk. 
At the end of a week, some neat's-foot oil should be applied every 
morning, with a feather or soft brush, to keep the scabs as supple 



CASTRATION. 441 

as possible. The various formulas for blisters will be given in the 
list of materia medica. 

CASTRATION. 

For removing the testicles several methods of operation 
have been proposed ; but hitherto none has been tried which is so 
successful as the old plan, in which the division of the cord is per- 
formed by a heated iron with a sharp edge. In human surgery 
the spermatic artery is tied, and all danger of hemorrhage is over, 
because the small amount of bleeding which takes place from the 
artery of the cord is of no consequence, as it cannot enter the cavity 
of the peritoneum. In the horse, on the other hand, the inguinal 
canal communicates with that cavity, and if the ligature is used, 
there is a double danger of inflammation — first, from effused blood, 
and secondly, from the irritation of the ends of the ligature. This 
plan, therefore, is now generally abandoned, though some few prac- 
titioners still adhere to it, and the choice rests between two methods 
of removal by cautery, namely, the actual and potential, — the 
former giving more pain at the moment when the heated iron is 
applied, but the latter being really far more severe, as the caustic 
is a long time in effecting a complete death of the nerve and other 
sensitive parts. Torsion of the vessels has been also tried, but it 
is often followed by haemorrhage, and, moreover, the pain which 
is caused during the twisting of the artery is apparently quite as 
great as is given by the heated iron. We are all inclined to fancy 
that fire occasions more agony than it really does, but those who 
have in their own persons been unfortunately able to compare the 
effects of the two kinds of cautery, have uniformly admitted that 
the actual is less severe than the potential, if the two are used so 
as to produce the same amount of cauterization. 

The best period for performing the operation on the 
foal is just before weaning, provided the weather is mild. If, how- 
ever, his neck is very light, and the withers low, its postponement 
till the following spring will give a better chance for the develop- 
ment of these parts. The cold of winter and heat of summer are 
both prejudicial, and the months of April, May, September, or 
October should always be selected. 

No preparation is required in the "sucker," but after wean- 
ing the system always requires cooling by a dose of physic and 
light food before castration can safely be performed. Horses which 
have been in training, or other kind of work attended with high 
feeding, require at least three weeds' or a month's rest and lower- 
ing, by removing corn, mashing, &c, together with a couple of 
doses of physic, before they are fit to be castrated. 

For the ordinary method of operating, a pair of clams 
should be provided, lined at the surfaces where the compression 



442 



THE HORSE. 



is made, with thick layers of vulcanized india-rubber. This ma- 
terial gives a very firm hold without bruising the cord, and causing 
thereby inflammation. A large scalpel and a couple of irons will 
complete the list of instruments, over and above the apparatus 
necessary for casting the horse (see Casting, page 433). The horse 
being properly secured according to the directions there given, and 
a twitch being put on the lip in case he should struggle much, the 




Fig. 23. — clams lined with vulcanized india-rubber. 

operator, kneeling on the left side, grasps the testicle so as to make 
the skin of the scrotum covering it quite tense. A longitudinal 
incision, about three inches long, is then made down to the testicle, 
which, if care has been taken that there is no rupture, may be 
rapidly done — a wound of its surface not being of the slightest con- 
sequence, and giving far less pain than the slow niggling dissection 
of its coverings, which is sometimes practised to avoid it. The 
testicle can now be cleared of its coverings, and the hand laying 
hold of it gently, the operator raises it from its bed, and slips the 
clams on each side the cord, at once making the proper pressure 
with them, which should be sufficient to prevent all risk of the 
part enclosed slipping from between its jaws. Great care should 
be taken that the whole of the testicle, including the epididimis, 
is external to the clams ; and as soon as this is satisfactorily ascer- 
tained, the cord may be divided with the ordinary firing-iron at a 
red heat. To make sure that no haemorrhage shall occur, some 
operators sear the artery separately with a pointed iron ; but if the 
division is slowly made with the heated iron, and avoiding any 
drag upon the cord, no such accident will be at all likely to follow, 
though very rarely it will happen in spite of every care. The 
clams may now be removed, and the other testicle treated in the 
same way; after which the hobbles are cautiously removed, and the 
patient is placed in a roomy loose box, where he can take sufficient 
exercise to insure the gravitation of the discharge, but no more. 

The French Plan, by means of caustic, requires two pieces 
of wood, each about six inches long and an inch square, with a 
notch or neck at each end, to hold the twine by which they are 
tied together, and a groove in the two opposite surfaces, to hold 
the caustic. This is composed of one part of corrosive sublimate 
and four of flour, made into a paste with water, and it is intro- 



CASTRATION. 443 

duced while moist into the grooves, which it should completely fill. 
The horse is then secured as before, the cord is exposed, the pieces 
of wood are adjusted on each side, and firmly held together with 
pincers by an assistant, while the operator binds their ends together 
with waxed string. The testicle may now be removed with the 
knife, if the string has been tied sufficiently tight ; but unless the 
operator has had some experience, it is safer to let it remain on till 
it comes away by the ulceration of the cord. This is the uncovered 
operation, the covered one being performed with the same instru- 
ments, as follows. The scrotum is grasped, and opened, taking 
care to avoid wounding the tunica vaginalis reflexa, or outer serous 
investment, but cutting down to it through the skin, dartos muscle, 
and cellular membrane. These are to be carefully dissected back, 
until the cord can be isolated without wounding its serous invest- 
ment (tunica vaginalis), which is so thin that it is easy to ascertain 
with certainty the nature of its contents by examination with the 
fingers. If there is no hernia, the caustic can at once be applied 
to its outside in the same way as before ; and if there is, it must 
be pushed back into the cavity of the abdomen, by a little careful 
manipulation. 

Some veterinary surgeons operate in a similar way to one 
or other of the two last described plans, with the omission of the 
caustic, which they maintain is wholly unnecessary, for there must 
be sufficient pressure to cause a sloughing of the cord. There is 
certainly some truth in this argument, but if the pressure has not 
been sufficient to cause the sloughs, the caustic will assure that 
essential process, and thus it renders the operation safer, though 
it somewhat increases the subsequent local inflammation. The 
plan without caustic is almost precisely the same, as far as safety is 
concerned, as that formerly adopted by country farriers, called 
" twitching," in which two pieces of wood were applied on each 
side the base of the scrotum, and tied firmly at each end. The 
pain, however, occasioned by the pressure on so large a surface 
of skin is intense, and the operation is on that account indefensible, 
besides which it is not nearly so successful as either the ordinary 
English or French Operations. 

[The accompanying engraving represents the Ecraseur introduced to hi? 
Btudents by the Editor some eight years since. Its use obviates the necessity 



of any previous preparation, so that a horse of twenty years is operated 



444 



THE HORSE. 



upon with as much safety as a colt of as many months ; the pain caused by 
it lasts but a few minutes, while under the old system of clams and red hot 
irons, it often continued from twelve to twenty-four hours. It is now very 
extensively, and in some parts of the country exclusively, used, giving perfect 
satisfaction alike to the operator and owner of the horse. — Editor.] 

DOCKING AND NICKING. 

These operations on the tail are subject to the fashion 
of the day, the former being used for the purpose of shortening 
its length, which is inconvenient to the rider or driver in dirty 
weather, and the latter for altering its carriage, when this is too 
low for the taste of the owner. Nicking, is, however, very seldom 
practised in the present day, and never to the extent which was 
the fashion fifty years ago. 

Docking is very rapidly performed by the aid of the docking- 
knife, which is made on the principle of the guillotine. As the 
tail is removed at one sudden and forcible chop, the horse need 
not be confined in any way beyond fixing up his fore leg, unless he 




Fig. 25 — D0CKINO-KNITE. 



is a very violent animal, when he must be placed in the break (see 
page 435). The exact length of the dock to be left being fixed 
upon, the hair is cut off close below, and the remainder tied back 
to the root of the tail. The situation of the joint, which may be 
ascertained from its greater prominence, is then marked, by care- 
fully removing the hair with the scissors, and then laying it in the 
rounded groove of the wooden frame in which the knife plays, so 
that the edge of the latter shall exactly correspond with the part 
to be cut, the handles are suddeuly and forcibly brought together, 
and the end is removed at one blow. A pointed iron should have 
been previously heated, and then raising the tail to a level with 
the back, the arteries are first seared, which a very slight touch 
will effect, and then the point is pushed into the sheath of the 
tendons lying at the top of the stump, so as to cause them to 
adhere in that position, and effect a handsome carriage of the tail. 



DOCKING— NICKING— REDUCTION OF HERNIA. 445 

Lastly, a little resin is melted over the end of the stump with the 
iron now pretty nearly cooled, and the operation is concluded by 
untying the hair. 

Nicking was formerly carried to such an extent that the poor 
horse could not lower his tail, but was always obliged to carry it 
over his back. Several deep cross-cuts were made in the under- 
side after being docked, and then a cord was fastened to the hair, 
and being carried over a pulley attached to the ceiling, the tail 
was kept drawn up over the back by a weight at its end. The 
horse could lie down by raising the weight, but by no possible 
means could he lower his tail, and in course of time the wounds 
healed by granulation filling up their spaces, and the nicking was 
completed. When a horse now carries his dock too low, a sub- 
cutaneous incision of the flexor tendons is made, which is generally 
sufficient, but if not the pulley is adopted for a few days. Some- 
times the tail is carried on one side, and then a similar operation 
by subcutaneous division of the tendons on the side to which the 
tail is carried will have the desired effect, always taking care in 
each case to keep the knife clear of a joint. 

UNNERVING. 

The nerves distributed to the foot are sometimes divided for 
navicular disease, as they lie on each side of the bone above the 
fetlock joint. No one, however, should attempt this operation 
without having previously seen it performed, as it requires con- 
siderable dexterity for its due execution. I have described such 
operations as may be wanted in the parts of the country where a 
veterinary surgeon cannot always be reached, but unnerving is but 
seldom required, and I shall therefore omit any detailed account 
of it. 

REDUCTION OF HERNIA. 

Hernia is sometimes strangulated; that is to say, the protrud- 
ing portion of bowel is confined in its situation by such pressure 
on its neck as to cause danger of mortification. Under such cir- 
cumstances, if it is found to be impossible to return the bowel by 
careful manipulation, an operation must be performed. This con- 
sists in carefully dissecting through the coverings of the bowel, 
and when it is exposed, a long and narrow guarded knife (Bistouri 
cachi) is passed by the side of the intestine through the opening 
into the abdomen, and then making the blade prominent it is with- 
drawn, and the fibres causing the pressure are divided. This 
usually allows of the bowel being passed back again into the 
abdomen, when the operation is completed by bringing the parts 
together with one or two stitches. 

When hernia occurs in the colt either at the navel or 
scrotum, it is often desired to effect a cure by returning the bowel 
88 



446 THE HORSE. 

and causing the opening to close by adhesive inflammation. If 
the colt is uncut, the performance of the covered operation on the 
French plan (see page 443) will generally succeed, great care 
being of course necessary to return the intestine before the clams 
are applied. In umbilical hernia a similar plan has been tried, 
but the adhesion is too superficial to be of much use ; and the only 
successful method is the passage of one or two skewers through 
the opposite edges of the opening, and then winding some waxed 
twine round them, with a moderate degree of force. This should 
not be sufficient to cause mortification, or the opening will only be 
increased in size, and the bowel will protrude without any covering 
of skin ; but it should be just sufficient to cause adhesive inflam- 
mation ; experience in such matters alone enabling the operator to 
hit upon the right amount. 

In all operations for hernia chloroform is of great assist- 
ance, as it prevents the risk of a protrusion of the bowel while the 
knife is being used, which will otherwise sometimes happen during 
the struggles of the horse. 

THE ADMINISTRATION OF PHYSIC. 

Medicine may be given to the horse either in the solid form 
as a ball, or liquid, and then called a drench, or as a dry powder, 
when in small compass and with little taste, mixed with the corn 
or mash. Sometimes also a small quantity of a tasteless liquid, 
such as liquor arsenicalis, may be given with the food. 

In giving a ball, place a halter on the head with a knot, so 
that the jaws may be widely opened. Then turn the horse round 
in the stall and back him up to the manger, lay hold of the tongue 
and draw it out of the mouth, grasp it with the left hand, which 
must also hold the halter-cord so short that the strain is partly 
taken off the tongue, and then holding the ball in the right hand 
with the fingers enclosing it like a cone, and, the arm bare, it 
should be rapidly carried to the back of the mouth and deposited 
there, holding the head up till it is seen to pass down the gullet. 
Cautious grooms use a balling iron, which gags the mouth and 
protects the arm, but a handy man will have less difficulty in intro- 
ducing his hand than in inserting the gag, unless the horse is a 
determined biter, when it may be absolutely necessary. In that 
case the gag is insinuated with as much ease as a bit in a flat 
direction, and the handle being suddenly depressed, the mouth 
gapes and the teeth cannot be brought together. Then holding 
its handle together with the halter in the left hand, the right 
easily introduces the ball into the pharynx. 

In giving a drench, two persons are necessary, the operator 
standing at the right shoulder, while the assistant is ready to steady 
the head and aid him on the left. The operator raises the head 



PHYSIC— CLYSTERS— BACK-RAKING. 447 

with his left hand beneath the jaw, and with his right he forces 
the lip of the horn into the side of the mouth, and, raising the 
small end, pours the contents in. If the horse is violent, a twitch 
must be placed on the nose, and held by the assistant. The horn 
must not be passed far into the mouth, or any unnecessary violence 
used, for fear of producing a cough ; in which case, the hand must 
be instantly lowered. A neglect of this precaution will probably 
cause some of the liquid to pass into the larynx. 

CLYSTERS 

Are most valuable agents, if properly administered. The 
best syringe for the purpose is Read's, by which any quantity may 
be thrown up ; and in colic, some gallons of warm water are some- 
times required to produce the desired effect. For an ordinary 
opening clyster, a handful or two of common salt may be dissolved 
in five or six quarts of warm water. 

BACK-RAKING 

Is effected by passing the greased hand and arm into the 
rectum, and withdrawing any hardened faeces which may have 
accumulated there. When the quantity of these is great, the hand 
must be passed several times, until it cannot reach any more. 
Whenever physic is given to an unprepared horse, as is sometimes 
necessary in severe disease, this precaution should never be 
neglected. Mr. Gamgee, of Edinburgh, is of opinion that this 
operation is more safely and easily performed by the aid of instru- 
ments, supporting his views by the assertion that the introduction 
of the hand gives unnecessary pain. On one or two occasions I 
have certainly seen a shoulder of mutton at the end of a human 
arm, and this would perhaps cause some little difficulty ; but no 
hand of average size is nearly so large as the mass of dung usually 
passed; and those who are not above doing a dirty job when duty 
requires it, well know by experience that the hand and arm may be 
passed to the shoulder without giving any pain whatsoever. In • 
struments are useful when they cannot be dispensed with, but they 
are always liable to cause laceration. 




448 THE HORSE. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

THE PRINCIPAL MEDICINES, AND THE DOSES IN WHICH THEY 
CAN SAFELY BE ADMINISTERED : — 

Alteratives — Anodynes — Antiseptics — Anti-Zumins — Aperients — 
Astringents — Blisters — Caustics, or Cauteries — Clysters— De- 
tergents — Diuretics — Embrocations, or Liniments — Febrifuges 
— Injections — Lotions, or Washes — Physic Balls and Drenches 
— Stimulants — Stomachics — Tonics — Traumatics — Vermi- 
fuges, or Worm Medicines. 



(The Formulae enclosed in [ ] are by the American Editor ) 



ALTERATIVES. 

This term is not very scientific, but it is in very general 
use, and easily explains its own meaning, though the modus operandi 
of the drugs employed to carry it out is not so clear. The object is 
to replace unhealthy action by a healthy one, without resorting to 
any of the distinctly-defined remedies, such as tonics, stomachics, 
&c. As a general rule, this class of remedies produce their effect 
by acting slowly but steadily on the depuratory organs, as the liver, 
kidneys, and skin. The following may be found useful : — 

1. In Disordered States of the Skin — 

Emetic Tartar 5 ounces. 

Powdered Ginger .... 3 ounces. 

Opium 1 ounce. 

Syrup enough to form 16 balls : one to be given every night. 

2. Simply Cooling — 

Barbadoes Aloes .... 1 ounce. 

Castile Soap U ounce. 

Ginger \ ounce. 

Syrup enough to form 6 balls : one to be given every morning. Or, 

3. Barbadoes Aloes . . . . U drachm. 

Emetic Tartar 2 drachms. 

Castile Soap 2 drachms. Mix. 

4. Alterative Ball for General Use — 

Black Sulphuret of Antimony . . 2 to 4 drachms. 

Sulphur 2 drachms. 

Nitre ...... 2 drachms. 

Linseed meal and water enough to form a ball. 



APERIENTS— ANODYNES. 449 

5. For Generally Defective Secretions — 

Flowers of Sulphur . . .6 ounces. 

Emetic Tartar . . . . . 5 to 8 drachms. 
Corrosive Sublimate . . . .10 grains. 
Linseed meal mixed with hot water, enough to form 6 balls, one of 
which may be given two or three times a week. 

6. In Debility of Stomach — 

Calomel ...... 1 scruple. 

Aloes ...... 1 drachm. 

Cascarilla Bark, ^ 

Gentian Root, > of each in powder . 1 drachm. 

Ginger, ) 

Castile Soap 3 drachms. 

Syrup enough to make a ball, which may be given twice a week, or 
every other night. 



ANODYNES, 

Sometimes called Narcotics, when taken into the stomach, 
pass at once into the blood, and there act in a special manner on 
the nervous centres. At first they exalt the nervous force ; but 
they soon depress it, the second stage coming on the sooner accord- 
ing to the increase of the dose. They are given either to soothe 
the general nervous system, or to stop diarrhoea; or sometimes tc 
relieve spasm, as in colic or tetanus. Opium is the chief anodyne 
used in veterinary medicine, and it may be employed in very large 
doses : — 

1. Anodyne Drench fob Colic — 

Linseed Oil ..... 1 pint. 

Oil of Turpentine . . . . 1 to 2 ounces. 

Laudanum . . . . 1 to 2 ounces. 

Mix, and give every hour till relief is afforded. 

2. Anodyne Ball for Colic (only useful in mild cases) — 

Powdered Opium . . . . \ to 2 drachms. 

Castile Soap ..... 2 drachms. 

Camphor ...... 2 drachms. 

Ginger ...... \\ drachm. 

Make into a ball with Liquorice powder and Treacle, and give every 
hour while the pain lasts. It should be kept in a bottle or bladder. 

3. Anodyne Ball (ordinary) — 

Opium \ to 1 drachm. 

Castile Soap 2 to 4 drachms. 

Ginger . . . . . . 1 to 2 drachms. 

Powderoi Aniseed . . . . \ to 1 ounce. 

Oil of Caraway Seeds . . . \ drachm. 
Syrup enough to form a ball, to be dissolved in half a pint of warm ale, 
and given as a drench. 

4. Anodyne Drench in Svperpurgation, or Ordinary Diarrucsa 

Gum Arabic . . . . .2 ounces. 
Boiling Water . . . . .1 pint. 

2f 



loO THE HORSE. 

Dissolve, and then add — 

Oil of Peppermint . . . .25 drops. 

Laudanum . . . . . J to 1 ounce. 

Mix, and give night and morning, if necessary. 

5. In Chronic Diarrikea — 

Powdered Chalk and Gum Arabic, each 1 ounce. 
Laudanum . . . . . ^ ounce. 

Peppermint Water . . . .10 ounces. 
Mix, and give night and morning. 

6. In Colic — 

Spirit of Turpentine . . . 3i ounces. 

Laudanum . . . . H ounce. 

Barbadoes Aloes . ... 1 ounce. 
Powder the Aloes, and dissolve in warm water ; then add the other 
ingredients, and give as a drench. 

7. Clyster in Colic — 

Spirit of Turpentine . . .6 ounces. 

Aloes ... . 2 drachms. 

Dissolve in 3 quarts of warm water, and stir the turpentine well into it. 

8. Antispasmodic Drench — 

Gin . . . . . . . 4 to 6 ounces. 

Tincture of Capsicum . . .2 drachms. 
Laudanum . . . . .3 drachms. 

Warm Water . . . . lj pint. 

Mix, and give as a drench, when there is no inflammation. 

[ANTISEPTICS. 

Antiseptics are those medicines which prevent and destroy 
putrescence in sores and ulcers. 

1. Carbolic Acid* . . . . 1 drachm. 

Oil, Glycerine, or Water . . .2 ounces. 



* This substance, a product of gas tar, was formerly known to the scien- 
tific world as Phenile or Plienic Acid, but is now generally known as Car- 
bolic Acid. Its smell resembles that of Creosote, which is Carbolic Acid 
and a fixed oil, and is very offensive to most persons. Its form is that of 
an acid solution though sometimes sold in crystals. Its great importance 
is due to its property of coagulating the albumen of the animal tissue, and 
hence its value in sores, wounds, and ulcers. It may be applied with safety 
to all parts of the body or legs, and is invaluable for destroying lice, wood 
ticks, and all forms of parasite life, and by merely washing or moistening 
those parts of the legs and body of horses, cattle, and sheep, and chosen by 
the bot, horse or other flies to deposit their eggs, their hatching or even 
deposit may be prevented. 

As a disinfectant in stables and buildings affected with fevers and all 
kinds of distempers, it was found extremely serviceable in England, in 
checking the ravages of the Rinderpest by washing the floors and stalls ; and 
adding a tablespoonful of the solution of the acid to a bucketful of water, in 
whitewashing the walls and ceilings. — Editor. 



10 
2 


grains, 
ounces. 


1 

1 


ounce, 
pint. 



ANTISEPTICS— ANTI-ZUMINS— APERIENTS. 451 

Chloride of Zinc 
Water . . . 

Sulphate of Soda 

Water ..... 

Charcoal or Brewers' Yeast.] 



[ANTI-ZUMINS. 

A CLASS OF medicines which are now deemed indispensable in 
meeting certain pathological conditions — fermentation of the blood, 
as exhibited in glanders, farcy, &c. 

1. Sulphate of Soda . . . .3 drachms. 
Spanish Fly ..... 5 grains. 

To be given once daily. 

2. Carbolic Acid . . . . .20 grains or drops. 
Sulphate of Iron, in powder . . 2 drachms. 
Gentian Root, in powder . . .3 drachms. 

Give one powder daily. 

3. Inhalation of Sulphurous Acid Gas, by placing the animal in a house 

by himself, and generating the gas, by placing 1 ounce of Roll Sul- 
phur on top of a brazier filled with burning coal, and allowing the 
horse to breathe the gas from twenty minutes to half an hour, two 
or three times in the week.] 



APERIENTS. 

{Physic Balls and Drenches.) 

Aperients, or purges, are those medicines which quicken or 
increase the evacuations from the bowels, varying, however, a good 
deal in their mode of operation. Some act merely by exciting the 
muscular coat of the bowels to contract ; others cause an immense 
watery discharge, which, as it were, washes out the bowels; whilst 
a third set combine the action of the two. The various purges 
also act upon different parts of the canal, some stimulating the 
small intestines, whilst others pass through them without affecting 
them, and only act upon the large bowels ; and others, again, act 
upon the whole canal. There is a third point of difference in 
purges, depending upon their influencing the liver in addition, 
which mercurial purgatives certainly do, as well as rhubarb and 
some others, and which effect is partly due to their absorption into 
the circulation, so that they may be made to act, by injecting into 
the veins, as strongly as by actual swallowing, and their subse- 
quent passage into the bowels. Purgatives are likewise classed, 
according to the degree of their effect, into laxatives actiug mildly, 
and drastic purges, or cathartics, acting very severely. 



452 



THE HORSE. 



3 to 8 drachms 
J drachm. 
1 drachm 
12 drops. 



3 to 5 drachms. 

1 to 2 drachms. 

2 drachms. 
15 drops. 



1. Ordinary Physic Balls — 

Barhadoes Aloes . . . . 3 to 8 drachms. 

Hard Soap . . . . .4 drachms. 

Ginger ...... 1 drachm. 

Dissolve in as small a quantity of boiling water as will suffice ; then 
slowly evaporate to the proper consistence, by which means griping is 
avoided. 

2. A Warmer Physic Ball — 

Barbadoes Aloes 
Carbonate of Soda . 
Aromatic Powder 
Oil of Caraway 
Dissolve as above, and then add the oil. 

3. Gently Laxative Ball — 

Barbadoes Aloes 
Rhubarb Powder 
Ginger 

Oil of Caraway 
Mix, and form into a ball, as in No. 1. 

4. Stomachic Laxative Balls, for Washy Horses — 

Barbadoes Aloes . ... 3 drachms. 

Rhubarb ...... 2 drachms. 

Ginger ...... 1 drachm. 

Cascarilla Powder .... 1 drachm. 

Oil of Caraway . . . .15 drops. 

Carbonate of Soda .... lj drachm. 

Dissolve the Aloes as in No. 1, and then add the other ingredients. 

5. Purging Balls, with Calomel — 

Barbadoes Aloes 
Calomel . 
Rhubarb . 
Ginger 
Castile Soap 
Mix as in No. 1. 

6. Laxative Drench — 

Barbadoes Aloes 
Canella Alba . 
Salt of Tartar . 
Mint Water 

7. Another Laxative Drench — 

Castor Oil 
Barbadoes Aloes 
Carbonate of Soda 
Mint Water 

Mix, by dissolving the Aloes in the Mint Water by the aid of htat, and 
then adding the other ingredients. 

8. A Mild Opening Drench — 

Castor Oil . . . . .4 ounces. 
Epsom Salts . . . . . 3 to 5 ounces. 
Gruel 2 pints. Mix. 

9. A very Mild Laxative — 

Castor Oil . . . . .4 ounces. 

Linseed Oil . . . . .4 ounces. 
Warm Water or Gruel . . .1 piut. Mix. 



3 to 6 drachms. 
h to 1 drachm. 

1 to 2 drachms. 
£ to 1 drachm. 

2 drachms. 



3 to 4 drachms. 
1 to 2 drachms. 

1 drachm. 

8 ounces. Mix. 

3 to 6 ounces. 
3 to 5 drachms. 

2 drachms. 
8 ounces. 



APERIENTS— ASTRINGENTS. 453 

10. Used in the Staggers — 

Barbadoes Aloes . . . . 4 to 6 drachms 
Common Salt . . . . .6 ounces. 
Flour of Mustard .... 1 ounce. 
Water 2 pints. Mix. 

11. A Gently Cooling Drench in Slight Attacks of Cold — 

Epsom Salts 6 to 8 ounces. 

Whey 2 pints. Mix. 

12. Purgative Clyster — 

Common Salt 4 to 8 ounces. 

Warm Water 8 to 16 pints. 



ASTRINGENTS. 

{For Diarrhoea and Dysentery.) 

Astringents appear to produce contraction on all living ani- 
mal tissues with which they come in contact, whether in the 
interior or on the exterior of the body ; and whether immediately 
applied or by absorption into the circulation. But great doubt 
exists as to the exact mode in which they act; and, as in many 
other cases, we are obliged to content ourselves with their effects, 
and to prescribe them empirically. They are divided into astrin- 
gents administered by the mouth, and those applied locally to 
external ulcerated or wounded surfaces. 

1. For Bloody Urine — 

Powdered Catechu ... . £ ounce. 
Alum . . . . . \ ounce. 

Cascarilla Bark in powder . . 1 to 2 drachms. 

Liquorice Powder and Treacle enough to form a ball, to be given twice 

a day. 

2. For Diabetes — 

Opium ...... £ drachm. 

Ginger powdered . . . . 2 drachms. 

Oak Bark powdered .... 1 ounce. 

Alum, as much as the tea will dissolve. 

Chamomile Tea .... 1 pint. 

Mix for a drench. 

3. External Astringent Powders for Ulcerated Surfaces — 

Powdered Alum . . . . 4 ounces. 
Armenian Bole ... .1 ounce. 

4. White Vitriol 4 ounces. 

Oxide of Zinc 1 ounce. Mix. 

5. Astriwcient Lotion — 

Goulard Extract . . . . 2 to 3 drachms. 

Water h pint. 

6. Sulphate of Copper . . . . 1 to 2 drachms. 
Water £ pint. Mix. 



454 THE HORSE. 



7. Astringent Ointment fob Soee Heels — 
Acetate of Lead 
Lard ..... 


. 1 drachm. 
. 1 ounce. 


8. Another for the Same — 

Nitrate of Silver powdered 

Goulard Extract 

Lard ..... 


5 drachm, 
1 drachm. 
. 1 ounce. 



Mix 



Mix, and use a very small portion every night. 



BLISTERS. 



Blisters are applications which inflame the skin, and proddce 
a secretion of serum between the cutis and cuticle, by which the 
latter is raised in the form of small bladders ; but in consequence 
of the presence of the hair, these are very imperfectly seen in the 
horse. They consist of two kinds — one, used for the sake of coun- 
ter-irritation, by which the original disease is lessened, in conse- 
quence of the establishment of this irritation at a short distance 
from it ; the other, commonly called " sweating" in veterinary sur- 
gery, by which a discharge is obtained from the vessels of the part 
itself, which are in that way relieved and unloaded. There is also 
a subsequent process of absorption in consequence of the peculiar 
stimulus applied. 

1. Mild Blister Ointment (Counter-Irritant) — 

Hog's Lard . . . . .4 ounces. t 

Venice Turpentine . ... 1 ounce. 

Powdered Cantharides . . .6 drachms. 
Mix, and spread. 

2. Stronger Blister Ointment (Counter-Irritant) — 

Spirit of Turpentine . ... 1 ounce. 

Sulphuric Acid, by measure . . 2 drachms. 
Mix carefully in an open place, and add — 

Hog's Lard . . . . .4 ounces. 

Powdered Cantharides . . .1 ounce. 
Mix, and spread. 

3. Vert Strong Blister (Counter-Irritant) — 

Strong Mercurial Ointment . . 4 ounces. 

Oil of Origanum . . . \ ounce. 

Finely-powdered Euphorbium . . 3 drachms. 

Powdered Cantharides . . . \ ounce. 
Mix, and spread. 

4. Rapidly Acting Blister (Counter-Irritant) — 

Best Plour of Mustard . . .8 ounces. 
Made into a paste with water ; then add — 

Oil of Turpentine . . . . 2 ounces. 

Strong Liquor of Ammonia . . 1 ounce. 
This is to be well rubbed into the chest, belly, or back, in cases of 
acute inflammation. 



BLISTERS— CAUSTICS, OR CAUTERIES. 455 

5, Sweating Blister — 

Strong Mercurial Ointment . . 2 ounces. 

Oil of Origanum ... .2 drachms. 

Corrosive Sublimate . . .2 drachms. 

Cantharides powdered . . .3 drachms. 
Mix, and rub in with the hand. 

6. Strong Sweating Blister, for Splints, Ring-Bones, Spavins, 

&c. — 

Biniodide of Mercury . . . 1 to li drachm. 
Lard ...... 1 ounce. 

To be well rubbed into the legs, after cutting the hair short ; and followed 
by the daily use of Arnica, in the shape of a wash, as follows, which is to 
be painted on with a brush : — 

Tincture of Arnica .... 1 ounce. 

Water 12 to 15 ounces. 



Mix. 



7. Liquid Sweating Blisters — 

Cantharides 1 ounce. 

Spirit of Turpentine . . .2 ounces. 

Methylated Spirit of "Wine . . 1 pint. 

Mix, and digest for a fortnight ; then strain. 

8. Powdered Cantharides . . .1 ounce. 
Commercial Pyroligneous Acid . 1 pint. 

Mix, and digest for a fortnight ; then strain. 



CAUSTICS, OR CAUTERIES. 
(7b destroy Proud Flesh in Wounds.) 

Caustics are substances which burn away the living tissues of 
the body, by the decomposition of their elements. They are of 
two kinds, viz. : First, the actual cautery, consisting in the appli- 
cation of the burning iron, and called firing; and, secondly, the 
potential cautery, by means of the powers of mineral caustics, such 
as potassa fusa, lunar caustic, corrosive sublimate, &c. 

Firing is described in the chapter on Operations, at page 438. 

The following are the ordinary chemical applications used as 
potential cauteries : — 

1. Fused Potass, difficult to manage, because it runs about in all 

directions, and little used in veterinary medicine. 

2. Lunar Caustic, or Nitrate of Silver, very valuable to the veterinary 

surgeon, and constantly used to apply to profuse granulations. 

3. Sulphate of Copper, almost equally useful, but not so strong as 

Lunar Caustic. It may be well rubbed into all high granulations, 
as in broken knees, and similar growths. 

4. Corrosive Sublimate in powder, whieh acts most energetically 

upon warty growths, but should be used with great care and dis- 
cretion. It may safely be applied to small surfaces, but not with- 
out a regular practitioner to large ones. It should be washed off 



456 THE HORSE. 

after remaining on a few minutes. For the mode of applying it in 
castration, see page 442. 

5. Yellow Orpiment is not so strong as Corrosive Sublimate, and may 
be used with more freedom. It will generally remove warty 
growths, by picking off their heads and rubbing it in. 

,, Muriate of Antimony, called Butter of Antimony ; a strong but 
rather unmanageable caustic, and used either by itself or mixed 
with more or less water. 

7. Chloride of Zinc is a most powerful caustic. It may be used in 

old sinuses in solution — 7 drachms in a pint of water. 

Milder Caustics : — 

8. Verdigris, either in powder or mixed with Lard as an ointment, in 

the proportion of 1 to 3. 

9. Red Precipitate, ditto, ditto. 

10. Burnt Alum, used dry. 

11. Powdered White Sugar. 

Mild Liquid Caustics : — 

12. Solution of Nitrate of Silver 5 to 15 grains to the ounce of dis- 

tilled water. 

13. Solution of Blue Vitriol, of about double the above strength. 

14. Chloride of Zinc, 1 to 3 grains to the ounce of water. 



CLYSTERS, OR INJECTIONS. 

Clysters are intended either to relieve obstruction or spasm of 
the bowels, and are of great service when properly applied. They 
may be made of warm water or gruel, of which some quarts will be 
required in colic. They should be thrown up with the proper 
syringe, provided with valves and a flexible tube. 

Anodyne Clyster in Diarrhoea — 

Starch, made as for washing . . 1 quart. 

Powdered Opium . . . . . 2 drachms. 
The Opium is to be boiled in water, and added to the Starch. 



[DETERGENTS 

Are those agents which possess the property of cleansing ulcers, 
wounds, and sores, inducing in them a healthy action. 

1. Solution of the Sulphate of Zinc. 

2. Sulphate of Copper . . 1 ounce. 
Water 1 pint. 

3. Acid Nitrate of Mercury of the dng-shops. 

4. Carbolic Acid 1 drachm. 

Water .... .2 ounces.] 



DIURETICS— EMBROCATIONS. 



457 



DIURETICS. 

(7o increase the Flow of Urine.) 

Diuretics are medicines which promote the secretion and dis- 
charge of urine, the effect being produced in a different manner by 
different medicines; some acting directly upon the kidneys by 
sympathy with the stomach, while others are taken up by the 
blood-vessels, and in their elimination from the blood cause an 
extra secretion of the urine. In either case their effect is to 
diminish the watery part of the blood, and thus promote the absorp- 
tion of fluid effused into any of 'he cavities, or into the cellular 
membrane in the various forms of dropsy. 

1. Stimulating Diuretic Ball — 

Powdered Resin ... .3 drachms. 

Sal Prunelle . . . . .3 drachms. 
Castile Soap . . . . .3 drachms. 
Oil of Juniper ..... 1 drachm. Mix. 

2. A more Cooling Diuretic Ball — 

Powdered Nitre . . . . h to 1 ounce. 

Camphor ...... 1 drachm. 

Juniper berries . . . . .1 drachm. 

Soap ...... 3 drachms. 

Mix, adding linseed meal enough to form a ball. 

3. Diuretic Powder for a Mash — 

Nitre . . . . . . J to | ounce. 

Resin \ to f ounce. Mix. 

4. Another more Active Powder — 

Nitre ...... 6 drachms. 

Camphor \\ drachm. Mix. 



EMBROCATIONS, OR LINIMENTS. 

Embrocations, or Liniments, are stimulating or sedative 
external applications, intended to reduce the pain and inflamma- 
tion of internal parts when rubbed into the skin with the hand. 



1. Mustard Embrocation — 

Best Flour of Mustard 
Liquor of Ammonia . 
Oil of Turpentine 
Mix with sufficient water to form a thin paste. 

2. Stimulating Embrocation — 

Camphor . 

Oil of Turpentine 

Spirit of Wine . 

39 



6 ounces. 
\\ ounce. 
H ounce. 



\ ounce. 
\ ounce. 
I ounce. Mix. 



458 



THE HORSE. 



3. Sweating Embrocation for Windgalls, &c 

Strong Mercurial Ointment 
Camphor ..... 
Oil of Rosemary 
Oil of Turpentine 

4. Another, but Stronger — 

Strong Mercurial Ointment 

Oil of Bay .... 

Oil of Origanum 
Powdered Cantharides 

5. A most Active Sweating Embrocation — 

Biniodide of Mercury 
Powdered Arnica Leaves . 
Soap Liniment .... 



2 ounces. 
f ounce. 
2 drachms. 
1 ounce. Mix. 



2 ounces. 

1 ounce. 

£ ounce. 

J ounce. Mix. 

i to 1 drachm. 

1 drachm. 

2 ounces. Mix. 



FEBRIFUGES 

{Fever Balls and Powders), 

Generally called fever medicines, are given to allay the arte- 
rial and nervous excitements which accompany febrile action. 
They do this partly by their agency on the heart and arteries 
through the nervous system, and partly by increasing the secre- 
tions of the skin and kidneys. 

1. 



Fever Ball — 

Nitre .... 

Camphor .... 
Calomel and Opium, of each 
Linseed meal and water enough to form a ball. Or, 

2. Emetic Tartar . 
Compound Powder of Tragacanth 

Linseed meal as above. Or, 

3. Nitre 

Camphor ..... 

Mix as above. 

4. Cooling Powder for Mash — 

Nitre ..... 

May be given in a bran mash. 

5. Cooling Drench — 

Nitre 

Sweet Spirit of Nitre 

Tincture of Digitalis 

Whey 

6. [Tincture of Aconite Root 

Extract of Belladona 
To be repeated, if necessary, three times daily.] 



4 drachms. 
\h drachm. 

1 scruple. 

1 J to 2 drachms. 

2 drachms. 

3 drachms. 
2 dra'chms. 



6 drs. to 1 ounce. 



1 ounce. 

2 ounces. 

2 drachms. 
1 pint. 



15 drops. 
2 drachms. 



INJECTIONS. (See Cltsters.; 



LOTIONS— STIMULANTS. 459 



LOTIONS, OR WASHES 

Consist in liquids applied to the external parts, either to cool 
them or to produce a healthy action in the vessels. 

1. Cooling Solution for External Inflammation— 

Goulard Extract . . . 1 ounce. 

Vinegar ...... 2 ounces. 

Spirits of Wine, or Gin . . .3 ounces. 
Water . . . . . lj pint. 

Mix, and apply with a calico bandage. 

2. Another, useful for Inflamed Legs, or for Galled Shoul- 

ders or Back — 

Sal Ammoniac . . . . .1 ounce. 



Vinegar 
Spirits of Wine 
Tincture of Arnica 
Water 



4 ounces. 
2 ounces. 
2 drachms. 
i pint. Mix. 



3. Lotion for Foul Ulcers — 

Sulphate of Copper .... 1 ounce. 

Nitric Acid . . . . . i ounce. 

Water . . . . . . 8 to 12 ounces. 

Mix. 

4. Lotion for the Eyes — 

Sulphate of Zinc . . . . 20 to 25 grains. 

Water ...... 6 ounces. Mix. 

5. Very Strong One, and only to be dropped in — 

Nitrate of Silver . . . . 5 to 8 grains. 

Distilled Water .... 1 ounce. 

Mix, and use with a camel-hair brush. 



PHYSIC BALLS AND DRENCHES. (See Aperients.) 



STIMULANTS. 

By this term is understood those substances which excite the 
action of the whole nervous and vascular systems. Almost all 
medicines are stimulants to some part or other, as, for instance, 
aperients, which stimulate the lining of the bowels, but to the 
general system are lowering. On the other hand, stimulants, so 
called par excellence, excite and raise the action of the brain and 
heart. 

Old Ale 1 quart. 

Carbonate of Ammonia . . . J to 2 drachms. 

Tincture of Ginger . ... 4 drachms. 
Mix, and give as a drench. 



460 



THE HORSE. 



STOMACHICS. 

Stomachics are medicines given to improve the tone of the 
stomach when impaired by bad management or disease. 

1. Stomach Ball — 



Powdered Gentian 
Powdered Ginger 
Carbonate of Soda . 
Treacle to form a ball. Or, 


. \ ounce. 
\\ drachm. 
1 drachm. 


2. Cascarilla, powdered 

Myrrh .... 
Castile Soap ... 

Mix, with syrup or treacle, into a ball. Or, 


1 ounce. 
\\ drachm. 
. 1 drachm. 


3. Powdered Colombo . 
Powdered Cassia 
Powdered Khubarb . 

Mix as in No. 2. 


. \ to 1 ounce. 
1 drachm. 
. . 2 drachms. 



TONICS 

Augment the vigor of the whole body permanently, while stimu- 
lants only act for a short time. They are chiefly useful after low 
fever. 



1. Tonic Ball — 

Sulphate of Iron 
Extract of Camomile 
Mix, and form into a ball. Or, 

2. Arsenic 
Ginger 

Powdered Aniseed 
Compound Powder of Tragacanth 



\ ounce. 
1 ounce. 



10 grains. 
1 drachm. 

1 ounce. 

2 drachms. 



Syrup enough to form a ball. It is a very powerful tonic. 



[TRAUMATICS 

Are those medicines which excite the healing process in 
wounds, ulcers, or sores. 



1. 


Carbolic Acid .... 
Water 


. 1 drachm. 
. 2 ounces. 


2. 


Tincture Aloes and Myrrh. 




3. 


Chloride of Zinc . . . 
Water .... 


. 5 grains. 
. \ ounce. 



4. 



Yeast and Charcoal.] 



VERMIFUGES— LIST OF IMPORTED HORSES. 461 



VERMIFUGES, OR WORM MEDICINES. 

Their action is partly by producing a disagreeable or fatal 
impression on the worm itself, and partly by irritating the mucous 
lining of the bowels, and thus causing them to expel their con- 
tents. Failing the remedy recommended at page 368, the follow- 
ing may be useful : — 

1. Worm Ball (recommended by Mr. Gamgee) — 

Asafoetida . . . . .2 drachms. 

Calomel lh drachm. 

Powdered Savin . . . . l| drachm. 

Oil of Male Fern .... 30" drops. 
Treacle enough to make a ball, which should be given at night, and fol- 
lowed by a purge next morning. 

2. Mild Drench for Worms — 

Linseed Oil ..... 1 pint. 
Spirit of Turpentine .... 2 drachms. 
Mix, and give every morning. 

3. [Tincture Nux Vomica . . .15 drops. 
Give three times daily for two or three days.] 



CHAPTER XXIX. 
LIST OF IMPORTED HORSES. 

In order to show how largely the Americans are indebted to 
English blood, I here insert the following list of horses imported 
by them from England, with the date of foaling of each, for 
which I am indebted to Mr. Herbert: — * 

Abjer, 1817, by Old Truffle — Briseis by Beninborough. 

Actaeon, 1837, by Comus or Blacklock — Panthea. 

Admiral, 1799, by Florizel — Spectator mare. 

Admiral Nelson, 1795, by John Bull — Olivia. 

Ainderby, 1832, by Velociped — Kate. 

Alderman, 1778, by Pot8os — Lady Bolingbroke. 

Alexander, by Alexander, son of Eclipse ; dam's pedigree unknown. 

Alexander, 1791, by Champion — Countess. 

All-Fours, 1772, by All-Fours — Blank mare. 

Ambassador, by Emilius — Trapes by Tramp. 

Americus, 1755, by Babraham — Creeping Molly. 

Amurath, 1832, by Langar — Armida. 

Apparition, 1827, by Spectre — Young Cranberry. 

Archduke, 1796, by Sir Peter Teazle — Horatia, by Eclipse. 

Archer, 1760, by Fagjjergill — Eclipse mare. 

Archibald, 180l", by Walnut — Bay Javelin. 

Arrakooker, 1789, by Drone — Camilla. 

* From his last and crowning work, "The Horse and Horsemanship of 
the United States and British Provinces of North America," by kind per- 
mission of the publishers, Messrs. W. A. Townsend & Adams. — Editor. 
39* 



462 THE HORSE. 

Autocrat, 1822, by Grand Duke — Olivetta. 

Bachelor, 1753, by Blaze — Smiling Tom mare. 

Barefoot, 1820, by Tramp — Bosamond. 

Baronet, 1782, by Vertumnus — Penultima. 

Bay Bichmond, 1769, by Feather — Matron. 

Bedford, 1792, by Divngannon — Fairy. 

Belshazzar, 1830, by Blacklock — Manuella. 

Bergamot, 1788, Highflyer — Orange Girl. 

Berner's Comus, 1827, by Comus — Rotterdam. 

Black Prince, 1760, by Babraham — Riot. 

Blossom, 1795, by Bordeaux — Highflyer mare. 

Boaster, 1795, by Dungannon — Justice mare. 

Bolton, 1752, by Shark — Partner mare. 

Brilliant, 1691, by Phenomenon — Faith. 

Brian O'Lynn, 1756, by Aston — Le Sang mare. 

Brutus, 1748, by Regulus — Miss Layton. 

Buffcoat, 1742, by Godolphin Arab — Silverlocks. 

Buzzard, 1787, by Woodpecker — Misfortune. 

Camel, 1822, by Whalebone — Selim mare. 

Cannon, 1789, by Dungannon — Miss Spindleshanks. 

Cardinal Puff, 1803, by Cardinal— Luna. 

Celer, 1774, by Old Janus— Brandon. 

Centinel, 1758, by Blank — Naylor, by Cade. 

Cetus, 1827, by Whalebone — Lamia. 

Chance, 1787, by Lurcher — Recovery. 

Chariot, 1789, by Highflyer — Potosi, by Eclipse. 

Chateau Margaux, 1822, by Whalebone — Wasp. 

Citizen, 1785, by Pacolet — Princess. 

Claret, 1850, by Chateau Margaux — Partisan mare. 

Clifden, 1797, bv Alfred — Florizel mare. 

Clifton, 1797, by Abbe Thulle— Eustatia, by Highflyer. 

Clockfast, 1774, by Gimcrack — Miss Ingram. 

Clown, 1785, by Bordeaux — Eclipse mare. 

Cceur de Lion, 1789, by Highflyer — Dido. 

Commodore, 1820, by Caleb Quot'em — Mary Brown. 

Consol, 1828, by Lottery — Cerberus mare. 

Consternation, 1841, by Confederate — Curiosity. 

Contract, 1823, by Catton — Helen. 

Cormorant, 1787, by Woodpecker — Nettletop. 

Coronet, 1828, by Catton — Paynator mare. 

Crab, 1736, by Crab — Councillor mare. 

Crawler, 1792*, by Highflyer — Harriet. 

Creeper, 1786, bv Tandem — Crawler's dam. 

Cub, 1739, by Old Fox— Warlock Galloway. 

Cynthius, 1799, by Acacia — Yarico. 

Dancingmaster, 1787, by Woodpecker — Madcap. 

Dare Devil, 1787, by Magnet — Hehe. 

David, 1756, by Gower Stallion — Fox Cub marc. 

De Bash, 1792, by King Fergus— Highflyer mare. 

Denizen, 1836, by Actreon — Design. 

Derby, 1831, by Peter Lely — Urganda. 

Diomed, 1777, by Florizel — Spectator mare. 

Dion, 1795, by Spadille — Faith. 

Doncaster, 1834, by Longwaist — Muley mare. 

Don John, 1835, by Tramp or Waverley — Sharpset's dam, 

Don Quixote, 1784, by Eclipse — Grecian Princess. 



LIST OF IMPORTED HORSES. 463 

Dormouse, 1753, by Dormouse — Diana, by Whitefoot. 

Dragon, 1787, by Woodpecker — Juno. 

Briver, 1784, by Driver — Dorimont mare. 

Drone, 1778, by Herod — Lily. 

Druid, 1790, by Pot8os — Ma'id of the Oaks. 

Dungannon, 1793, by Dungannon— Miss Spindleshanks. 

Eagle, 1796, by Volunteer — Highflyer mare. 

Eastham, 1818, by Sir Oliver — Cowslip. 

Eclipse, 1778, by Eclipse —Phoebe. 

Emancipation, 1827, by Whisker — Ardrossan mare. 

Emilius Colt, 1836, by "Bourbon — Fleur de Lis. 

Emu, 1832, by Picton — Cuirass. 

Englishman, 1812, by Eagle — PotSos mare. 

Envoy, 1827, by Comus — Aline. 

Escape, 1798, by Precipitate — Woodpecker mare. 

Espersykes, 1837, by Belshazzar — Capsicum mare. 

Eugenius, 1770, by Chrysolite — Mixbury. 

Expedition, 1795, by Pegasus — Active. 

Express, 1785, by Postmaster — Syphon mare, 

Exton, 1785, by Highflyer — Io. 

Fairfax Roan, 1764, by Adolphus — Tartar mare. 

Fearnought, 1755, by Regulus — Silvertail. 

Fallower, 1761, by Blank — Partner mare. 

Fellow, 1755, by Cade — Goliah mare. 

Felt, 1826, Langar— Steam. 

Figaro, 1731, by Figaro — Catton mare. 

Figure, 1747, by Standard — Beaufort Arabian mare. 

Firebrand, 1802, by Braggart — Fanny. 

Firetail, 1795, by Phenomenon — Columbine. 

Flatterer, 1830, by Muley— Clare. 

Flexible, 1822, by Whalebone— Themis. 

Flimnap, 1765, by South — Cygnet mare. 

Florizel, by Florizel — Alfred mare. 

Fop, 1832, by Stumps — Fitzjames mare. 

Frederick, 1810, by Selim — Englishman's dam. 

Friar, 1759, by South — Sister to Lowther Babraham, by Babraham. 

Fylde, 1824, by Antonio — Fadladinada. 

Gabriel, 1790, by Dorimont — Highflyer mare. 

Genius, 1753, by Babraham — Aura. 

Gift, 1768, by Cadormus— Old Cub mare. 

Glencoe, 1831, by Sultan — Trampoline, by Tramp. 

Gouty, 1796, by Sir Peter Teazle — Tandem mare. 

Granby, 1759, by Blank— Old Crab mare. 

Grecian, 1821 (Brother to Alasco), by Clavalino — Pioneer mare. 

Grey Highlander, 17S7, by Bordeaux — Teetotum mare. 

Greyhound, 1796, by Swectbriar — Miss Green, by Highflyer. 

Hambleton, 1791, by Dungannon — Snap mare. 

Hamilton, 1793, by son of Highflyer — Eclipse mare. 

Hector, 1745, by Lath — Childers mare. 

Hedgeford, 1826, by Filho-da-Puta — Miss Craigie. 

Hark Forward, 1840 (brother to Harkaway), by Economist — Ne.oc- 

lish mare. 
Hibiscus, 1834, by Sultan — Duchess of York. 
Highflyer, 1782, by Highflyer — Angelica. 
Honest John, 1794, by Sir Peter Teazle — Magnet. 
Hugh Lupus, 1836, by Priam — Her Highness. 



464 THE HORSE. 

Humphrey Clinker, 1822, by Comus — Clinkerina. 

Invalid, 1822, by Whisker — Hamilton mare. 

Jack Andrews, 1794, by Joe Andrews — Highflyer mare. 

Jack the Bachelor, 1753, by Blaze — Gallant mare. 

James, 1746, by Old James — Little Hartley mare. 

John Bull, 1799, by Fortitude — Xantippe. 

John Bull, 1833, by Chateau Margaux — Woful mare. 

Jolly Roger, 1741, by Roundhead— Partner mare. 

Jonah, 1795, by Escape — Lavender mare. 

Jordan, 1833, by Langar — Matilda. 

Julius Csesar, 1757, by Young Cade — Snip mare. 

Juniper, 1782, by Babraham — Aura. 

Junius, 1752, by Starling Crab — Monkey mare. 

Justice, 1782, by Justice — Curiosity. 

Justice. 1759, by Blank — Aura, by Stamford Turk. 

King William, 1777, by Herod — Madcap. 

King William, 1781, by Florizel— Milliner. 

Knowsley, 1795, by Sir Peter Teazle — Cupella, by Herod. 

Kouli Khan, 1772, by The Vernon Arab — Rosemary. 

Lancelot, 1837, by Camel. 

Langar colt, by Langar — Malvina. 

Langford, 1853, by Starch — Peri. 

Lapdog, 1823, by Whalebone — Canopus mare. 

Lath, 1763, by Shepherd's Crab — Lath mare. 

Leopard, by Liverpool — Sneaker, by Camel. 

Leviathan, 1823, by Muley — Windle mare. 

Lofty, 1753, by Godolphin Arab — Croft's Partner mare. 

Ludford, 1832, by Wamba — Idalia. 

Lurcher, 1832. by Greyleg — Harpalice, by Gohanna. 

Luzborough, 1820, by Williamson's Luzborough — Dick Andrews mare 

Lycurgus, 1767, by Blank— Snip mare. 

Magic, 1794, by Volunteer — Marcclla. 

Magnum Bonum, 1774, by Matchem — Snip mare. 

Manfred, 1796, by Woodpecker — Mercury mare. 

Mark Antony, 1767, by Spectator — Rachel. 

Margrave, 1829, by Muley — Election. 

Marmion, by Whiskey — Young Noisette. 

Marplot, by Highflyer — Omar mare. 

Master Robert, 1793, by Star — Young Marske mare. 

Matchem, 1773, by Matchem — Lady. 

Matchless, 1754, by Godolphin Arab — Soreheels. 

Medley, 1776, by Gimcrack — Anninda, by Snap. 

Mendoza, 1778, by Javelin — Pomona. 

Merman, 1835, by Whalebone — Orville mare. 

Merryfield, 1808, by Cockfighter— Star mare. 

Messenger, 1778, by Mambrino — Turf mare. 

Meux, 1816, by Chorus — Diana. 

Mexican, 1775, by Snap — Matchem mare. 

Moloch, by Muley Moloch — Sister to Puss. 

Monarch, 1834, by Priam— Del pini mare. 

Monkey, 1825, by Lonsdale Bay Arab — Curwen's Bay Barb mare. 

Mordecai, 1833, by Lottery — Miss Thomasina. 

Moro, by Starling — Brown Slipby. 

Morven, 1836, by Rowton — Nanine, by Selim. 

Moscow, 1746, by Cullen Arab — Croft's Starling mare. 

Mousetrap, by Careless — Regulus mare. 



LIST OF IMPORTED HORSES. 465 

Mufti, 1783, by Fitz Herod — Infant mare. 
Nicholas, 1833, by St. Nicholas — Moss Rose. 
Non Plus, 1824, by Catton— Miss Garforth, by Walton, 
North Star, 1768, by Matchem — Lass of the Mill. 
Northumberland, by Old Bustard — Old Crab mare. 
Onus, 1835, by Camel — The Etching, by Rubens. 
Oroonoko, 1745, by Old Crab — Miss Slamerkin. 
Oscar, 1795, by Saltram — Highflyer mare. 
Othello, 1743, by Crab — Miss Slamerkin. 
Pam, 1757, by Regulus — Cade mare. 
Pantaloon, 1778, by Herod — Nutcracker. 
Partner, 1760, by Partner — Camilla. 

Partner, by Duke of Hamilton's Figure — Old Figure mare. 
Passenger, 1836, by Langar — My Lady. 
Passaic, 1836, by Reveller — Rachel. 
Paul, 1807, by Saltram — Purity, by Matchem. 
Phenomenon, 1780, by Herod — Phrenzy. 
Pharaoh, 1753, by Moses — Godolphin mare. 
Phil Brown, by Glaucus — Bustle. 
Phoenix, 1798," by Old Dragon — Portia. 
Pilgrim, 1762, by Samson — Regulus mare. 
Play or Pay, 1791, by Ulysses — Herod mare. 
Plenipo, 1837, by Plenipo — Polly Hopkins. 
Portland, 1834, by Recovery — Caifacaratodaddera. 
Post Captain, 1835, by The Colonel — Posthuma. 
Precipitate, 1787, by Mercury — Hero* 7 mare. 
Priam, 1827, by Emilius — Cressida. 
Priam, 1834, by Priam — Soothsayer mare. 
Prince, 1773, by Herod — Helen, by Blank. 
Prince Ferdinand, by Herod — Matchem mare. 
Punch, by Herod — Marske mare. 
Regulus, 174", by Regulus — Partner mare. 
Restless, 1788, by Phenomenon — Duchess. 
Reveller colt, 1836, by Reveller — Rachel. 
Rutland, 1810, by Stamford— Worthy mare. 
Riddlesworth, 1828, by Emilius — Filagree. 
Roan colt, 1802, by Sir Peter Teazle — Mercury mare. 
Robin Redbreast, 1796, by Sir Peter Teazle — Wren. 
Roman, 1815, by Camillus — Leon Forte. 
Rotherham, 1S38, by Grey Conqueror — Camilla mare. 
Rosalio, 1836, by Vanish — Rose Leaf. 
Rowton, 1826, by Oiseau — Katherina. 
Rowton colt, 1836, by Nanine — Nannie. 
Royalist, 1790, by Saltram — Herod mare. 
Ruby, 1836, by Emilius — Eliza. 
St. George, 1789, by Highflyer — Sister to Soldier. 
St. Giles, 1829, bv Tramp— Arcot Lass. 
St. Patrick Colt, 1835, by St. Patrick— Maria, by Whisker. 
St. Paul, 1791, by Saltram — Purity, by Matchem. 
Saltram, 1780, by Eclipse — Virago. 
Scout, 1836, by St. Nicholas — Blacklock mare. 
Scythian, 1851, by Orlando — Scvthia. 
Selim, 1780, by Bajazet— Miss Thigh. 
Scral). 1821, by Phantom — Jessie. 
Shadow, 1759, by Babraham — Bolton Starling mare. 
Shakspeare, 1823, bv Smolensko — Charming Molly. 
2g 



466 THE HORSE. 

Shamrock, 1827, by St. Patrick— Fairy. 

Shark, 1771, by Marske — Snap mare. 

Shock, by Stork — Partner mare. 

Shock, 1729, by Jig — Snake mare. 

Silver, 1789, by Mercury — Herod mare. 

Silver Eye, by Cullen Arab — Curwen's Bay Barb. 

Sir Harry, 1794, by Sir Peter Teazle— Matron. 

Sir Peter Teazle, 1802, by Sir Peter Teazle — Mercury maro. 

Sir Robert, 1833, by Bobadil — Fidalma, by Waxy Pope. 

Skylark, 1826, by Waxy Pope — Skylark. 

Slender, 1779, by King Herod — Rachel. 

Slim, 1768, by Wildman's Babraham — Babraham mare. 

Sloven, 1756, by Cub — Bolton Starling mare. 

Slouch, 1745, by Cade — Little Hartley mare. 

Sorrow, 1836, by Defence — Tears. 

Sour Crout, 1786, by Highflyer — Jewel. 

Sovereign, 1836, by Emilius — Fleur de Lis. 

Spadille, 1784, by Highflyer— Flora. 

Spark, by Honeycomb Punch — Miss Colville. 

Speculator, 1795, by Dragon — Herod mare. 

Spread Eagle, 1792, by Volunteer — Highflyer mare. 

Stafford, 1833, by Memnon — Sarsaparilla. 

Star, 1786, by Highflyer — Snap mare. 

Starling, 1800, by Sir Peter Teazle — Magnet mare. 

Stirling, 1797, by Volunteer — Harriet. 

Stirling, 1762, by the Bellsize Arabian — Simpson's Snake mare. 

Strap, 1800, by Beninborough — Highflyer mare. 

Stratford, 1834, by Shakspeare — Pheasant. 

Swiss, 1821, by Whisker — Shuttle mare. 

Tarquin, 1720, by Hampton Court Arab — Leedes mare. 

Telegraph, 1795, by Guildford — Fame. 

Tickle Toby, 1786, by Alfred— Cffilia, by Herod. 

Tom Crib, by Gladiator — Jemima. 

Tom Jones, 1745, by Partner — True Blue mare. 

Tranby, 1826, by Blacklock — Orville mare. 

True Blue, 1797, by Walnut — King Fergus mare. 

Truffle, 1825, by Truffle— Helen. 

Trustee, 1829, by Catton — Emma. 

Tup, 1756, by Javelin — Flavia. 

Valentine, 1823, by Magistrate — Miss Forester. 

Valparaiso, 1831, by Velocipede — Juliana. 

Vampire, 1757, by Regulus — Steady mare. 

Vanish, 1834, by Vanish — Elephant's dam. 

Victor, 1838, by Defence— Vivid. 

Volney, 1833, by Velocipede — Voltaire's dam. 

Volunteer, bv Volunteer — Whipcord mare. 

Whale, 1830', by Whalebone — Rectory. 

Whip, 1794, by Saltram — Herod mare. 

Wildair, 1753, by Cade — Steady mare. 

William the Fourth, 1795, by Blacklock — Juniper mare. 

Wonder, 1786, by Florizel — Saccharissa. 

Wonder, 1794, by Phenomenon — Brown Fanny. 

Wrangler, 1794, by Diomed — Fleacatcher. 

Yorkshire, 1834, by St. Nicholas — Miss Rose. 

Zinganee, 1825, by Tramp — Folly. 

Zinganee colt, 1840, by Zinganee — Miss Andrew?. 



ESSAY 

ON THE 

AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE 

BY 

ELLWOOD HARVEY, M. D. 



■16YJ 



THE 



AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE, 



The trotting gait has been brought to such a degree of excel- 
lence in this country, and the breeding, training, and driving of 
trotting horses claims so large a share of attention, both in town and 
country, that a book on horses would be incomplete if it did not 
treat more fully of these subjects than any foreign work could be 
expected to do. 

This Essay is therefore intended to give some account of the 
history of American trotting and of trotters of distinction, together 
with a few suggestions on breeding and training of this class of 
horses. 

Though trotting has been greatly cultivated here, and enters 
more largely into the business and pleasure of Americans than of any 
other people, it would be an error to suppose that no attention has 
been given to it in any other country, or that the matching of 
trotters in races had its origin here. The trot is a natural gait to 
the horse, as it is to many other quadrupeds, and wherever horses 
are driven in harness their trotting is likely to be improved. A 
horseback rider finds the gallop and the canter easier to him, and 
horses are chiefly trained to those gaits in countries where light 
vehicles and good roads are unknown ; as in Asia, Africa, the 
eastern part of Europe, and all of America except the United States 
and Canada. 

Trotting, as a sport, began in England as early as 1791, in which 
year we find an account of a brown mare, eighteen years old, that 
trotted on the Essex road 16 miles in 58 minutes. On the 13th of 
October, 1799, a trotting match was decided on Sunbury Common, 
England, between Mr. Dixon's brown gelding and Mr. Bishop's 
gray gelding, each carrying 168 pounds, which was won in 27m. 
10s. The distance is not stated, but the time shows that it was a 
trial of endurance as well as speed. Nearly all of the English 
trotting matches of that early period were of great distance. A 
Mr. Stevens drove a pair of his own horses tandem, in 1796, from 
40 (469) 



470 THE HORSE. 

Windsor to Hampton Court, 16 miles, in less than an hour; and 
the celebrated English trotter, Archer, carried 210 lbs. 16 miles 
in 55 minutes. At about this period a variety of roadsters called 
Norfolk trotters came into notice in England, and still maintain a 
good reputation there, though none of them have ever attained a 
speed that would be considered very fast here. No other European 
country has produced trotters worthy of notice. 

Trotting as a public amusement began somewhat later in this 
country. Porter's Spirit of the Times, of December 20, 1856, 
states : " The first time ever a horse trotted in public for a stake 
was in 1818, and that was a match against time for $1000. The 
match was proposed at a jockey-club dinner, where trotting had 
come under discussion, and the bet was that no horse could be 
produced that could trot a mile in 3 minutes. It was accepted by 
Maj. Wm. Jones, of Long Island, and Col. Bond, of Maryland, but 
the odds on time were immense. The horse named at the post was 
Boston Blue, who won cleverly, and gained great renown. He 
subsequently was purchased by Thomas Cooper, the tragedian, who 
drove him on several occasions between New York and Philadel- 
phia, thereby enabling him to perform his engagements in either 
city on alternate nights." This performance was more then twenty 
years later than the first public trotting in England, where the 
sport was then receiving some encouragement ; and Boston Blue 
was taken to that country, where he trotted 8 miles in 28m. 55s., 
winning a hundred sovereigns. He also trotted several shorter 
races, making about 3m. time. He was a rat-tailed, iron-gray 
gelding, 16 hands high, and nothing is known of his pedigree. 

Trotting received very little attention here until after 1820, 
when the descendants of Messenger attracted notice by their speed, 
spirit, and endurance ; chiefly about Philadelphia and New York. 

In 1825 the New York Trotting Club was organized, and estab- 
lished a trotting course on Long Island. 

In 1828 the Hunting Park Association was established in Phila- 
delphia — " for the encouragement of the breed of fine horses, espe- 
cially that most valuable one known as the trotter." Its course, 
known as the Hunting Park, was located about four miles north of 
the city. 

Before the era marked by the organization of these two associa- 
tions, three minutes was about the shortest time in which any horse 
here or in England had trotted a mile. In imitation of the four- 
mile running heats then and now common, the first trials of trot- 
ting speed were usually for three miles or more ; and effort was not 
then directed to the development of the greatest degree of speed 
for a single mile. For several years, two and three-mile heats were 
trotted at about the rate of 2m. 40s. to the mile, and this is about 
the average speed of to-day, estimating from the reports of trotting 



THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 471 

races iu the Spirit of the Times, though we now have many that 
can go the mile in less than 2m. 30s., a few that can make 2m. 24s., 
and two or three that have trotted in less than 2m. 20s. Among 
the early celebrities were Screwdriver, Betsy Baker, Topgallant, 
Whalebone, Shakspeare, Paul Pry, Trouble, and Sir Peter; all 
grand-colts of Messenger, except the first named, and he was a 
great-grand-colt. As many of the most distinguished trotters of 
the present day claim the same lineage, and as the influence of this 
great progenitor on the trotting stock of the country was immensely 
greater than that of all others together, a history of Messenger and 
his descendants would be a pretty full history of the eminent trot- 
ting horses of the world. 

Messenger was an English thorough-bred, foaled in 17S0, and 
imported, as were many other English thorough-breds, on account 
of his value as a running horse, and for the improvement of 
thorough-breds in this country. Pie had run successfully in sev- 
eral races, and at five years old won the King's Plate. It was 
three years after this performance, 1788, that he was imported 
into New York by Mr. Benger. The first two seasons after his 
arrival he was kept at Neshaminy Bridge, near Bristol, in Bucks 
county, Pa. Mr. Henry Astor then purchased him, and kept him 
on Long Island for two years. About this time Mr. C. W. Van 
Bantz purchased an interest in him, and for the remainder of his 
life he was kept in various parts of the state of New York, with 
the exception of one year at Cooper's Point, in New Jersey, oppo- 
site Philadelphia. He died January 28, 1808. 

Messenger was a gray, 15 hands 3 inches high, and stoutly built. 
His form was not strictly in conformity with the popular notions 
of perfection, being upright in the shoulders and low on the 
withers, with a short, straight neck and a large, bony head. His 
loins and hind quarters were powerfully muscular, his windpipe 
and nostrils of unusual size, his hocks and knees very large, and 
below them limbs of medium size, but flat and clean ■ and whether 
at rest or in motion, his position and carriage always perfect and 
striking. It is said that during the voyage to this country the 
three other horses that accompanied him became so reduced in 
flesh and strength that when the vessel landed at New York they 
had to be helped and supported down the gang-plank ; but when 
it came Messenger's turn to land, he, with a loud neigh, charged 
down the gang-plank, with a colored groom on each side holding 
him back, and dashed off up the street at a stiff trot, carrying the 
grooms along in spite of their efforts to stop him. 

Though his name has been made illustrious chiefly by the per- 
formances of his trotting descendants, he was also the sire of some 
of the best running horses of his day. The most famous on the 
turf of his immediate thorous>h-bred descendants were Potomac, 



472 THE HORSE. 

Fair Rachel, Miller's Damsel (dam of American Eclipse), Bright 
Phoebus, Hambletonian, Sir Solomon, and Sir Harry. The cele- 
brated four-mile racer, Ariel, had Messenger in her pedigree four 
times in five generations. 

In his day trotting was not much in fashion, as we have shown, 
and nothing is known of the trotting speed of this great fountain- 
head of trotters, nor were any of his sons or daughters ever trained 
to that gait. It was the second generation of his descendants, the 
grand-colts of Messenger, and mostly those produced by a cross 
with the common stock of the country, that attracted attention by 
their trotting speed. This fact is easily explained. The thorough- 
breds of his get were trained to running, and were not used as road 
horses, or some of them would probably have surpassed any of his 
half-bred descendants in trotting. But even his own half-bred 
colts made no mark as trotters, though some of them became cele- 
brated as the sires of trotters. This is somewhat remarkable ; but 
"we should bear in mind that public attention had not then been 
given to that gait, good roads and light vehicles were not so com- 
mon, and the next generation being more numerous, the probabili- 
ties were greater that this remarkable quality of the family should 
not remain undiscovered. 

The sons of Messenger to which nearly all the fast trotters of 
the present day trace their pedigree were Plato, Engineer, Com- 
mander, Why-Not, Mount Holly, Mambrino, and Hambletonian. 

Mambrino, named after the sire of Messenger, was thorough- 
bred, a bright bay, 16 hands high, long bodied, and, like his sire, 
upright in the shoulders. He was not only a large, but also a 
coarse horse, badly string-halted ; a disease that seldom impairs a 
horse's usefulness, though it was hereditary in this case, and many 
of his descendants had it. He had a free, rapid, swinging walk, a 
slashing trot, and running speed of the first order. He was the 
sire of Betsy Baker, one of the first eminent American trotters 
of Abdallah, from whom are descended many of the fastest, includ 
ing the get of Rysdyk's Hambletonian, who was sired by Abdallah, 
and of Mambrino Paymaster, from whom are descended Mambrino 
Chief and all his get, including Lady Thorn, Mambrino Pilot, Bay 
Chief, &c. This son of Messenger stands undoubtedly at the head 
of the family as a progenitor of trotters. 

Next in celebrity is Hambletonian, also thorough-bred. He 
was a dark bay, 15 hands 1 inch, beautifully moulded, and without 
a single weak point. He was the sire of Topgallant, Whalebone, 
Sir Peter, Trouble, and Shakspeare ; all ranked among the best of 
the early American trotters. 

Abdallah was a grandson of Messenger, and deserves especial 
mention in this connection because so many trotters of celebrity 
are descended through him. He was foaled in 1826, the property 



THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 473 

of Mr. John Treadwell, of Jamaica, L. I. His sire was Mambrino, 
and his dam a daughter of Messenger, called Amazonia. Thus 
Abdallah was closely inbred. He was a bay, and inherited much 
of the plainness of his sire ; but also inherited the trotting quality 
of Messenger in great degree. He was trained at four years eld, 
and was considered the fastest young horse of his day. In the 
spring of 18-10 he was sold to Mr. John W. Hunt, of Lexington, 
Ky. ; but, on account of the great value of his stock, he was 
bought back the next year, at a high price, and died in 1852. 
Beside being a progenitor, through his son, Kysdyk's Hainble- 
tonian, of that numerous and highly-distinguished family of trotters 
of which Dexter, George Wilkes, and Mountain Boy are the most 
eminent representatives, he is equally remarkable for the number 
of mares of his get from whom very fast trotters have been bred. 
To say that a horse is "out of an Abdallah mare," is pedigree 
enough on that side with most horsemen. 

Of the other sons of Messenger it is not necessary to speak at 
length, though we find many horses of the present day descended 
from them, and inheriting the Messenger characteristics. When 
the pedigree of any fast trotter can be traced far enough, it rarely 
happens that Messenger is not found in it. Many horses that show 
good trotting speed, and are considered by their breeders and 
owners to be nothing but common stock, are found to be descended 
from Messenger, when intelligent investigation reveals their pedi- 
grees. 

Another imported horse that added something to the trotting 
•quality of our stock was Bellfounder, a stallion foaled about 1817 
and brought from England to Boston in 1823 by Mr. James Boot. 
He was a bay of fine form, size, and action ; and these character- 
istics were transmitted to his colts with great uniformity. Many 
of them were very good and stylish carriage horses, with consider- 
able speed, but only those infused with Messenger blood were very 
fast. Nothing is known of his pedigree, though his appearance 
indicated that he was nearly thoroughbred. It was said that he 
had trotted in England 2 miles in 6m. when three years old and 
10 miles in 30m. at four years old. It was also asserted that he 
had trotted 17 £ miles in an hour; but these statements, not being 
very well authenticated, are deemed apocryphal by the best horse- 
men of this day. One of his colts, of the same name, stood several 
years in Delaware county, Pa., and left a numerous family of 
handsome, lively trotters, nearly all of which became lame in the 
fore feet, and some even to the fifth generation. His advent to 
that locality was a loss of many thousands of dollars to breeders. 
The name of Bellfounder, there, is about synonymous with worth- 
lessness, and will long remain in disrepute; though this particular 
son of the imported horse probably inherited his constitutional 
40* 



474 THE HORSE. 

tendency to lameness from his dam, as the Bellfounders elsewhere 
are not charged with the same defect. Many distinguished trotters 
are in part descended from some of the many thorough-breds that 
have been imported from England at various times, and, indeed, 
our most celebrated horses have a strong infusion of that blood, 
derived from other sources than Messenger. Conceding the value 
of good thorough-bred crosses in giving spirit and endurance to 
trotting horses, and admitting that Diomed, Whip, Trustee, Glen- 
coe, Margrave, and other imported thorough-breds have eminent 
trotters among their descendants, it may be safe to say that all 
of them together would not have produced a family of trotters 
without a cross from Messenger ; and equally safe to assert that 
the fame of Messenger would have been no less if any one of the 
others had never been foaled. The imported Arabian, Grand 
Bashaw, had the luck to have his name perpetuated in a family 
of good trotters that originated in Bucks county, Pa., but the 
trotting quality all came from Messenger, who stood in that county 
two years. The first of the Bashaws that manifested any trotting 
quality was Young Bashaw, a son of the Arabian ; and he was the 
only one of the whole get (if we may coin a word) that was thus 
endowed. The explanation is found in the fact that Young 
Bashaw's dam was a granddaughter of Messenger. 

Of American horses not descended from Messenger that have 
contributed to establish the reputation of our trotters, the number 
is not large nor the influence very considerable. Sir Henry, the 
famous competitor of American Eclipse, and Duroc, both thorough- 
breds, and both descended from imported Diomed, seem to have ' 
transmitted some trotting quality to their descendants, but it is 
very doubtful that either, or both, would have established a family 
of trotters. Seely's American Star, quite famous as the sire of 
modern trotters, combines the blood of both, being sired by Ameri- 
can Star, a son of Duroc, and out of Sally Slouch by Sir Henry ; 
but his grand-dam was by Messenger. American Eclipse, the 
progenitor of many good trotters, had also the blood of Duroc, his 
sire ; but as his dam, Miller's Damsel, was by Messenger, the Duroc 
part of the pedigree is seldom thought of. Americus, who beat 
Lady Suffolk on the Hunting Park Course in a five-mile match to 
wagons in the remarkable time of 13m. 54s. and 13m. 58 £s., was 
by Bed Jacket, a son of Duroc, and not known to have inherited 
his trotting from any other source. 

Canada has added something to our trotting stock. In Lower 
Canada, where the earliest settlers were French, and brought with 
them a breed of horses now known in France as Normans, they 
have a breed of hardy, spirited, compactly built horses, descended 
from the larger French horse, inheriting much of his form and 
general appearance, but greatly diminished in size. These Cana- 



THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 475 

dian horses are often called Cannucks, and by some are known as 
French horses, a designation likely to lead to misapprehension. 
They are of all colors, with thick, long manes, heavy tails, and 
hairy legs. Their heads are generally very good in size and form, 
faces dished, indicating gamy dispositions; necks well arched, 
often heavy in the crest but carried well up; backs short, rumps 
steep, particularly in those that pace ; bodies round and roomy, 
the ribs sometimes projecting from the backbone nearly horizon- 
tally, giving a peculiar, flat appearance to the back. Their legs 
are generally good, but somewhat inclined to spring in the knees; 
feet often narrow and mulish, but very durable. In trotting they 
are usually short, quick steppers with very high knee action, and 
are spirited, trappy harness horses, and long-lived. These horses 
are often said to be degenerated from their Norman ancestry by 
reason of the coldness of the climate, the long winters and scanty 
fare. There have been numerous importations from France to 
this country of the choicest specimens of Norman horses, and an 
impartial comparison shows that the Canadian has gained in spirit 
and speed more than enough to compensate for all he has lost in 
size. 

The best of the Canadians that ever came to the States was, 
probably, Pilot, a black pacing and trotting horse whose descend- 
ants inherited trotting speed. He was often distinguished as Old 
Pacer Pilot. Wallace's American Stud Book says of him : " Foaled 
about 1826. Nothing is known of his pedigree. He was called 
a Canadian horse, and both trotted and paced ; at the latter gait, 
it is said, he went in 2m. 26s. with 1651bs. on his back. He was 
bought about 1832 by Major 0. Dubois, from a Yankee peddler 
in New Orleans, for §1000. He was afterwards sold to D. Hein- 
sohn of Louisville, Ky., and was kept in that vicinity until he 
died about 1855. His stock were very stout and fast." As no- 
thing is known of his pedigree, and as he was in all appearance a 
genuine Cannuck, it is likely that he did not owe anything to 
Messenger. One of his get, Alexander's Pilot, Jr., out of Nancy 
Pope by Havoc, was the sire of many fast trotters, the fastest of 
which was John Morgan, out of a mare by Medoc and he by Ameri- 
can Eclipse. The dam of Mambrino Pilot was also by Pilot, Jr., 
and, like John Morgan, was of Messenger descent on the dam's 
side. Though the best of the descendants of Old Pilot are part 
Messenger, there is none of that blood in Pilot, Jr., and it must be 
confessed that Old Pilot sired some very good horses that took the 
trotting all from 1 imself. 

Another horse of Canadian origin, though not a Cannuck, 
deserves notice in this connection. Royal George, called Warrior 
before he came to the States, the sire of the fast stallion Toronto 
Chief, and several other good trotters, was a native of Canada and 



476 THE HORSE. 

probably out of a Cannuck mare, but bis sire was Black Warrior, 
and he by an imported English horse. 

Some very good colts have been bred out of Cannucks by good 
trotting stallions. Thus the celebrated sons of Rysdyk's Hamble- 
tonian, Bruno and the Brother of Bruno, and their full sister 
Brunette, are out of a Canadian mare. At three years old Bruno 
made the astonishing time of 2m. 39s. in harness. At four years 
old, 2m. 30s. and 2m. 34s. At six years old he trotted to the 
pole with Brunette, seven years old, on the Fashion Course in 2m. 
35£s. 

Grift, a chestnut gelding by Mambrino Pilot, was out of a small 
pacing Cannuck. At four years old he received five forfeits, and 
challenged, through the Spirit of the Times, any colt of the same 
age to trot in harness or to wagon for $1000, without being accepted. 
Though these colts are out of Canadian mares, it must be considered 
that the mares themselves were not very fast, and that Rysdyk's 
Hambletonian and Mambrino Pilot are the best two trotting foal 
getters in the world. The bay stallion St. Lawrence, the sire of 
several fast trotters, was a Canadian, and one of the best of his 
breed. He died at Kalamazoo in 1858. There is one other horse 
deserving especial notice as a progenitor of trotters, in whose veins 
no blood of Messenger can be found, though his pedigree is too 
obscure to warrant the assertion that none existed there. Black 
Hawk, often called Vermont Black Hawk to distinguish him from 
the equally celebrated Long Island Black Hawk, and also called 
Hill's Black Hawk, was of Morgan stock on his sire's side; being 
a son of Sherman, one of the best sons of Justin Morgan, the 
founder of the Morgan family. The dam of Black Hawk was 
raised in New Brunswick, and nothing is known of her pedigree. 
Black Hawk was foaled in 1833 at Greenland, N. H. At four 
years old he was sold to Lowell, Mass., where he was used as a 
carriage horse for seven years. He then became the property of 
David Hill, of Bridport, Vt., where he acquired great fame ; beget- 
ting more high priced colts than any other horse of his day. He 
had remarkable power in propagating his own characteristics, and 
his stock were uniformly stylish, spirited harness horses, many of 
them fast and some of them among the fastest. Another history 
of his pedigree mades him the son of a Canadian named Paddy; 
and still another declares him a veritable native of Canada, though 
not a pure Cannuck. The story, as it was given the writer by 
Mr. Lucien Bechard, a Canadian horse dealer, is as follows : An 
old Canadian Frenchman engaged in smuggling tobacco from the 
States, bought there and took home with him a brown mare with 
foal. In due time she had a bay colt, that at two years old begot 
Black Hawk out of a little gray mare not over 14 hands high. 
The fortunate possessor of the black colt was a widow who lived 



THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 477 

by the Chambly river in the Montreal district. At four years old 
he was sold to John Harris for $200, and at six years old was sold 
again to Van Loiseu, a dealer, for $400. Van Loiseu taught him 
many tricks, at learning which he showed great aptitude, and sold 
him in New York to a Bostonian for $600. From Boston he got 
to Lowell, &c. This story is probably all true of some horse, but 
the identity is not established. Black Hawk's colts were never 
gray, as many of them would have been if his dam was that co?or, 
but many of them were chestnuts with white feet and faces, which 
was the color of Sherman and of Sherman's dam. This fact pretty 
clearly shows that neither the " Paddy" story nor the Canadian 
pedigree are correct, but that Black Hawk was truly a Morgan. 
He was a little under 15 hands, and weighed about lOOOlbs. In 
1842 he won $1000 by trotting five miles over the Cambridge 
Park Course in 16m. In 1843 he won a race of two-mile heats 
with ease in 5m. 43s. and 5m. 48s., and several times trotted single 
miles in 2m. 42s. He was the sire of Ethan Allen, Black Ralph, 
Lancet, Belle of Saratoga, Black Hawk Maid, Flying Cloud, and 
many others of good repute for speed. His colts were in great 
demand, particularly in the West and South, where hundreds were 
sold at very high prices. As many of his sons were, and still are, 
kept as stallions, his descendants are very numerous; and he 
undoubtedly has done much to improve the stock of American 
horses. But, notwithstanding these facts, the reputation of the 
family appears to be diminishing. Of fifty-two trotting stallions 
advertised in the Spirit of the Times in 1868, only three are 
descendants of Vermont Black Hawk, and all of these are also 
part Messenger. 

Every one of the fifty-two is descended from Messenger, and 
those most distinguished as sires of trotters have each several crosses 
of Messenger blood in their pedigree. These are very remarkable 
facts, and, taken in connection with the whole history of trotters, 
prove that we not only owe to Messenger the origin of American 
trotting horses, but also that the continuance of that particular 
quality, down to the present day, in increasing force, is due to the 
perpetuation of his stock, and to breeding together his descendants 
so as to combine the greatest quantity of Messenger blood in one 
animal. The value of his descendants depends, undoubtedly, in 
great degree, upon the quality of the horses crossed with the Mes- 
senger blood ; and those other horses, both native and foreign, 
whether thorough-breds, Cannucks, or of mixed blood, that may 
justly claim a share in establishing the fame of American trotters, 
have done very little more than cross well with the Messengers. 
It is, probably, no exaggeration to say that all of them together 
would have failed to establish a family of trotters in the country 
if Messenger the Great had not been imported. The trotting 



478 THE HORSE. 

quality runs out of all of them in a few generations if not crossed 
with the Messenger blood. They are but the tributary streams to 
the great river of which Messenger was the source. The immense 
influence of this one horse has a universal recognition in the com- 
mon expression : " A full-blooded Messenger," than which nothing 
can be more absurd. There was never but one full-blooded Mes- 
senger, and he died sixty years ago. Another expression often 
used in pedigrees is : "Out of a Messenger mare." This may not 
be so absurd as the other, for the mare may be well endued with 
Messenger blood and quality, and almost entitled to the distinction ; 
but in strict meaning none were Messenger mares except those of 
his own begetting. The Messengers are not a breed, as Cannucks 
and Mustangs and thorough-breds are, but only a family ; and we 
have not arrived yet to the perpetuation of the family names of 
horses in the male line, as is common among people of civilized 
countries. 

Pacing is not considered a good harness gait, but some of our 
fastest road and sporting horses have been pacers, and they are fre- 
quently matched with trotters in races. Many horses both trot and 
pace, and of those that have both gaits, some go faster in one and 
some in the other. To teach a trotter to pace is somewhat difficult 
unless the horse naturally inclines to it, but it may be done some- 
times by riding with a severe curb-bit and spurs. Of course it 
requires good horsemanship, as well as means and appliances, to 
urge the movement desired, and to restrain the animal from the 
steps he is most accustomed to take. When the saddle was more 
in use than now, pacing was a favorite gait with many riders, but 
unless the horse can occasionally change his way of going into a 
canter, it becomes very tiresome on a long journey. Though the 
rider may not be jolted from the saddle so much as by a trotter, 
the wabbling twists his back first one way and then the other most 
fatiguingly. 

Pacing and cantering are pleasant gaits for ladies' hackneys, and 
are well enough adapted to short journeys. In harness the pacer 
is not graceful. There is a gait, somewhat between a pace and a 
trot, and called a single-footed pace, that does pretty well in har- 
ness, but very few horses have it. For taking weight in harness, 
or on muddy or rough roads, the trot is greatly preferable. 

To teach a pacer to trot, various expedients are resorted to. 
Fence-rails are put down about as far apart as a trotter steps in a 
jog. The pacer is ridden over them and finds it difficult to lift his 
feet over them in that gait, and adopts the trot. When a horse 
has become very tired by long pacing he will sometimes ease his 
weary muscles by a change of action into a trot ; and this he is 
more likely to do if the roads are muddy. From such a beginning 
a skilful Iriver may make the trotting permanent. 



THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 479 

Some very good and fast trotters were first pacers and were taught 
the better way of going, and some of them after they had acquired 
speed in their natural gait. 

Pelhain was first a very fast pacer, and afterward became a dis- 
tinguished trotter. In 1849 he was the first to win a heat in har- 
ness in 2m. 28s. Cayuga Chief was a pacer in a livery stable, in 
Worcester, Mass., and a favorite ladies' hackney. One day he 
struck a trot, and soon became distinguished. In 1844 he trotted 
to a wagon with 2201bs. in 2m. 36£s. The black gelding Pilot, 
probably a son of the old pacer of the same name, was first a fast 
pacer. He surprised his owner by striking a trot, and improved 
so rapidly that in a short time he trotted in 2m. 28gs. Tip, and 
Dart, and Sontag were all pacers that afterward trotted fast. Old 
Pacer Pilot went fast in both gaits, and so did his grandson, Tom 
Wonder, the sire of the famous twenty-mile trotter, John Stewart. 

Though there are objections to pacing as a road gait, in harness, 
some of the fastest have been pacers ; and though it is generally 
believed that a pacer soon tires, there are performances on record 
that prove them capable of keeping in the best of trotting com- 
pany for any distance. In 1843, Sir Walter Scott paced on Beacon 
Course eighteen miles in less than an hour without a break or halt. 
In the same year, Oneida Chief paced against the best trotters of 
that time — Lady Suffolk, Confidence, and Dutchman — and won 
more races than he lost, making 2m. 28 is., the best time then on 
record. In the following year, Tippecanoe paced at New Orleans 
in 2m. 36s., carrying a very heavy rider; and Unknown paced 
on Beacon Course in 2m. 23s., a performance that had never then 
been equalled by trotter or pacer. Old Pacer Pilot paced in 2m. 
26s. with 1651bs. on his back. In 1850, Roanoke paced under 
saddle in 2m. 21 £s. He was a roan gelding, and nothing is 
known of his pedigree. In 1854, Pocahontas paced three heats 
in a race at New Orleans in 2.20, 2.25, and 2.20. But in the next 
year she brought the figures down to something less than has ever 
been equalled by any trotter but Dexter, and not surpassed by him. 
In a race with Hero, the pacer, in a wagon that weighed with the 
driver 265ibs., Pocahontas paced the first mile in 2.17. This was 
never beaten but once, and not uutil 1868, when Billy Boyce paced 
at Buffalo faster than any other horse has ever trotted or paced. 
In a race with Rolla Golddust, a trotter, mile heats, 3 in 5, to sad- 
dle, Boyce paced the second mile in 2.15i, and the third in 2.14J, 
pacing the last half of the second mile in 1.5 £, and the first half 
of the third mile in 1.6. 

Many pacers belong to trotting families, and some trotters seem 
to take their speed from a pacing ancestor, though this is not com- 
mon. Oneida Chief was half-brother of Flora Temple's sire. 
Woodpecker, the trotter, and James K. Polk, the pacer, both took 



480 THE HORSE. 

their speed from the same dam. Hero, the pacer, and competitor 
of Pocahontas in her wonderful performance, was begotten by 
Harris's Hambletonian, the sire of the trotters True John, Green 
Mountain Maid, John Anderson, and Sontag, a mare that was at 
first a natural pacer and afterward trotted very fast. Saltram, the 
sire of Highland Maid, was a pacer, and his dam, Roxana, was also 
a pacer. Highland Maid paced naturally, but was taught to trot, 
and went very fast. At six years old she trotted against Flora 
Temple, and lost the race by getting tired, being young, and going 
into a pace, which was her natural and easiest gait. She won the 
first heat in 2.29, the second in 2.27, but was distanced in the 
third. Highland Lass, a daughter of Highland Maid, was a fast 
trotter, and died in 1865. Her daughter, Highland Ash, by 
Ashland, is also a trotter, and in 1868 won the Spirit of the 
Times Stake for three-year olds, over four thousand dollars, in 
2.48. Flatbush Maid, one of Mr. Robt. Bonner's pair that trotted 
to a road wagon in 2.26, was begotten by a chestnut pacing horse 
that also trotted. Pocahontas is nearly thorough-bred, and was 
begotten by Cadmus, a son of American Eclipse. She, therefore, 
takes her wonderful pacing speed from Messenger, the sire of Mil- 
ler's Damsel, who was the dam of American Eclipse. Her daughter, 
Pocahontas, Jr., by Ethan Allen, is a trotter and very fast. 

Billy Boyce, a bay gelding, and very bloodlike in his appear- 
ance, is by Corbeau, a horse owned near Harodsburg, Ky., and 
the sire of several trotters. Corbeau was by a Canadian, not 
known as a begetter of ti'otters ; but his dam was by Frank, a 
thorough-bred, by Sir Charles, his granddam by Sir Archy ; 
which gives Corbeau two lines of descent from imported Diomed, 
and probably gives him also his trotting quality. 

Boyce has a cross of the Messenger, through American Eclipse, 
the sire of his granddam, and this gives him another cross of 
Diomed, through Duroc, the sire of American Eclipse. He is, 
therefore, of kindred blood with Lady Thorn, Dexter, Mambrino 
Pilot, Kemble Jackson, Independent, John Morgan, Peerless, and 
others of celebrity; that is, they all combine in their pedigrees 
the blood of Messenger and Diomed. 

These facts, a few of the many that could be cited, show the 
close relationship between pacers and trotters. They derive their 
speed from the same sources; trotters beget pacers, and pacers 
beget trotters ; many go fast in one gait, and, after being taught 
the other, go equally fast in that; so that they may properly 
enough be classed together, and designated by the common title 
of American Trotters. 

Though trotters are derived from so few sources as to be nearly 
all related to all the others, there are certain families that claim 
especial notice. 



THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 481 

At present the most celebrated are the Hambletonians. The 
founder of this family is Rysdyk's Hambletonian, owned in Ches- 
ter, N. Y., and having more Messenger blood than any other 
stallion living. Sec pedigree, Table I. He was foaled in 1849, 
and is still (in 1869) standing at $500 to insure. He is the sire 
of Dexter, George Wilkes, Bruno, Brunette, and many others of 
celebrity. Mountain Boy, owned by Commodore Vanderbilt, was 
begotten by Major Winfield, a son of Hambletonian. 

The Abdallahs are an older family, and not less distinguished. 
Abdallah's pedigree and history are mentioned on pages 472 and 
473. 

The Vermont Black Hawks were once very popular, and for a 
few years their fame quite eclipsed all other families. On page 
476 may be found a more extended account of them. 

The Bashaws are a very excellent family of trotters, but nearly 
obliterated now by admixture with others. They are a branch 
of the Messenger family that took their name from an imported 
Arabian, but not the trotting quality. The first of the family 
was Young Bashaw, a son of the Arabian ; and his best colt was 
Andrew Jackson, the first stallion that ever trotted in a public 
match. From him are descended many sub-families — the Clays, 
the Patchens, &c. In the pedigree of Green's Bashaw, Table III., 
may be seen the pedigree of Andrew Jackson, and why he was 
the best son of Young Bashaw. Charlotte Temple, a very fast 
marc that was taken to France, her full brother, the stallion Sala- 
din, and Black Bashaw, another stallion, were all begotten by 
Young Bashaw, and the two last named were both progenitors 
of many good trotters. Comet, Whiskey, Lantern, Belle of Balti- 
more, and Lightning, were all by Black Bashaw. One of Andrew 
Jackson's best colts was the stallion Long Island Black Hawk, 
often confounded with Vermont Black Hawk, the Morgan Horse. 
They should be carefully distinguished. Long Island Black Hawk 
had Messenger blood by four lines of descent (see pedigree of 
Green's Bashaw, Table III.), and his descendants inherit the trot- 
ting in large degree. Vermont Black Hawk begot many good 
horses, but the speed seems to run out in a few generations. He 
had no Messenger in him. 

George M. Patchen was descended from Long Island Black 
Hawk through Henry Clay and Cassius M. Clay, with a cross of 
Imported Diomed and another of Imported Trustee. See pedigree, 
Table VI. Patchen had speed and bottom worthy of such a good 
pedigree, but his descendants have not met the expectations of 
breeders. They are coarse in form, and subject to curbs and ring- 
bones. Lucy, the best of his get, was out of a May Day mare, 
and thus got another cross of the Diomed from Sir Henry, the sire 
of May Day. 

41 2h 



482 TIIE HORSE. 

Long Island Black Hawk's best son as a stock horse was Henry 
Clay, out of Surry, a mare of great speed from Canada. Henry 
Clay begot trotters, and died in 1867, aged 30 years. His son, 
Cassius M. Clay, out of a fast mare of unknown pedigree, was the 
sire of Patchen, and the ancestor of a numerous progeny of trot- 
ters. He may be considered the founder of a family of Clays, 
including C. M. Clay, Jr., Harry Clay (believed by many to be the 
sire of Dexter), Amos's C M. Clay, the sire of American Girl, 
that trotted in 2m. 40s. at 4 years old, and 2m. 32 £s. at 5 years 
old; Clay Pilot, Kentucky Clay, Cora, Nonpareil, and others. 

A very good and handsome family are the Morrills, a branch 
of the Morgans ; Morrill being a descendant of Justin Morgan, 
with two crosses of Diomed and four of Messenger to account for 
the trotting. His best colt was Young Morrill, owned by Samuel 
Perkins, Cambridge, Mass., now about 20 years old, and sire of 
Draco, Fearnought, Danville Boy, Mountain Maid, Hiram Wood- 
ruff, and many others that are among the best of road horses. He 
is more of a Morgan than his sire (see pedigree, Table V.), having 
two lines of descent from Justin Morgan on his dam's side. 

The Morgans are not distinguished as fast trotters, though 
many of them, like the Canadians, from whom they are in part 
descended, are good and smart road horses; and when crossed 
with Messenger, as Ethan Allen, Flying Cloud, Morrill, Lone Star, 
&c, they are among the best. 

Another family of very excellent reputation are the American 
Stars. The founder of the family was foaled in 1837, and died 
in 1861, the property of Jonas Seely, Orange county, N. Y. He 
had some Messenger blood, but more of Diomed through Duroc 
in one line and Sir Henry in another. See his pedigree in the 
pedigree of Dexter, Table VII. The dam of Dexter was by Ameri- 
can Star, as were a good many fast trotters, the best of which is 
Peerless, a gray mare, foaled in 1853, and owned by Robert Bon- 
ner, of New York. Hiram Woodruff said she was the fastest 
animal that he or any other man ever drove to a wagon, and that 
he drove her a quarter in 30s. and a mile in 2m. 23 is. Her dam 
was full of Messenger blood. American Star was a rat- tailed 
horse, and some of his colts are rather deficient in hair on their 
tails ; but they are fast and very gamey. 

Green's Bashaw, foaled in 1855, and owned in Muscatine, Iowa, 
has some superior colts, among them Kirkwood and Bashaw, Jr., 
both fast; and this, together with his remarkable pedigree (Table 
III.), justifies the expectation that he will become the head of a 
distinguished family. On his sire's side he has the Messenger 
blood through four channels, and on his dam's side the same pedi- 
gree as Rysdyk's Hambletonian with an additional cross of Web 



THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 483 

ber's Tom Thumb, a fast horse that looked like a Canadian and 
begot trotters. 

Grolddust, a chestnut, foaled about 1855, and owned by L. L 
Dorsey, Lexington, Ky., has begotten quite a numerous family of 
trotters considering his age. He is a very blood like horse, a fast 
walker and a fast trotter. He takes his speed from his sire, Ver- 
mout Morgan, whose dam was by Cock-of-the-Rock, he by Duroc, 
a son of Diomed. Cock-of-the-Rock's dam was Romp, a full sister 
to Miller's Damsel, by Messenger. On his dam's side he has some 
Arabian and thorough-bred blood that shows in the style and form 
of his colts. See Table IV. 

The Pilots, another Kentucky family, are descended from the 
Old Pacer Pilot, and are best represented by one of his sons, 
Alexander's Pilot, Jr., and his descendants. Pilot, Jr., owned by 
R. A. Alexander, Lexington, Ky., is a black, and was foaled about 
1845. His dam was Nancy Pope, by Havoc, a grandson of Diomed, 
and thus he takes the trotting from both sides, and in excellent 
combination. (See pedigree, in the pedigree of Mambrino Pilot, 
Table II.) He is the sire of John Morgan, Jim Rockey, Tackey, 
Pilot Temple, Dixie, Tattler, and many more. John Morgan was 
the closest competitor of Flora Temple in her best days, and every 
way one of the best trotters in the country. His dam was by 
Medoc, a son of American Eclipse, and he thus had another cross 
of Diomed, and one of Messenger. Tackey has trotted in 2m. 
28s.; Pilot Temple, out of the dam of Flora Temple, trotted in 
1868 in 2m. 31s.; Jim Rockey trotted in 1859 in 2m. 32s.; and 
Tattler, 5 years old, trotted in 1868 in 2m. 26s., a performance 
that probably has never been equalled by any horse of the same 
age. The famous twenty-miler, John Stewart, is a descendant of 
Old Pilot, through Tom Wonder and Tom Crowder — the last, a 
son of the old pacer. 

A modern family, that rivals the Hambletonians, is composed of 
the descendants of Mambrino Chief — a horse that was bred in the 
East, and taken to Kentucky by James B. Clay in 1854, where 
he died in 1861. His sire was Mambrino Paymaster, by Mam- 
brino, the best son of Messenger in the trotting line. (See pedi- 
grees of Lady Thorn and Mambrino Pilot, Tables IV. and IX.) 
His fast progeny is very numerous and very famous, and includes 
Lady Thorn, Bay Chief, Mambrino Pilot, Ericsson, Mambrino 
Patchen, Brignoli, Kentucky Chief, Ashland, &c. 

Lady Thorn stands first among all trotters now in public, and 
second only to Dexter and Flora Temple. Her pedigree and her 
performances are in perfect accord ; the speed and bottom both 
represented by three lines of descent from Messenger, and three 
from Diomed ; herself almost thorough-bred. 

Bay Chief, unfortunately shot by guerrillas, trotted half a mile 



484 THE HORSE. 

■when 4 years old in lm. 8s., a performance rarely equalled at any 
age. Ericsson trotted at 4 years old in 2m. 30£s., to a wagon, and 
is now at the head of the large breeding stud of K. C. Barker, 
Detroit, Mich. Brignoii, at 5 years old, trotted two-mile heats in 
harness in 5m. 20£s., 5m. 18Js., and 5m. 17£s. Mambrino Patchen 
is a full brother of Lady Thorn, and wretchedly misnamed, being 
related to Patchen only in a remote degree, though both inherit- 
ing largely the Messenger blood. 

The most distinguished son of Mambrino Chief, is Mambrino 
Pilot, owned by C. P. Belf, of Norristown, Pa. ; and, though foaled 
so lately as 1859, is already distinguished as a sire of trotters. He 
is a brown of large size and pony built, faultless in form and action, 
with an air of majesty in every attitude. At 6 years old, with 
very short preparation, he trotted against time in 2m. 27s. He 
inherits the blood of Messenger through three channels, and of 
Diomed through two, with a cross of Old Pilot, through his best 
son, Pilot, Jr. 

Considering that his oldest colts are but 5 years old, and that 
when those now old enough to show speed were begotten, he had 
not made his reputation, and did not receive the best of trotting 
mares, the number and speed of his fast colts is truly astonishing. 

Gift, ch. g., received five forfeits at 4 years old, and challenged 
through the " Spirit of the Times" any colt of the same age, to 
trot in harness for $1000 a side, without being accepted. Bell- 
ringer, b. s., trotted in 2m. 40s. before he was 4 years old. Grift 
and Bellringer both belong to Mr. Relf. Cranston, owned by 
Amasa Sprague, R. I., at 3 years old, trotted the second mile in 
a two-mile heat in 2m. 40£s. Vosburgh, ch. s., the property of 
A. & T. H. Carpenter, of Lyons, Iowa, when just 3 years old, 
trotted several times in 2m. 40s., and challenged any other horse 
in the world of the same age, to trot for any amount, at 4 years 
old, in September 1869. Charles S. Dole, of Chicago, 111., has a 
chestnut mare in his breeding stud, by Mambrino Pilot, that in 
the management of Dr. Kerr, of Lexington, Ky., trotted in 3m. 
at 2 years old. Eschol, Detective, Etta, Agitator, and Mambrino 
Messenger are other fast colts of the same family. 

Horsemen have been looking among the coming stallions for a 
successor to the renowned Rysdyk's Hambletonian, whose age 
must soon end his usefulness; and if the colts of Mambrino Pilot 
keep the early promise, and improve with maturity, as his remark- 
able pedigree and performances seem to justify us in expecting, 
then is a successor of even greater merit already indicated. 

There are many good trotting foal getters in the country not 
named in these allusions to the fimilies ol trotters. To mention 
half of them individually would be beyond the scope and limits 
of this Essay, but most of them belong to some of the familiep 



THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 485 

named. The object is not so much to instruct the reader in facts 
as in principles. There is a very prevalent opinion that trotters 
are chance horses, and that there is no certainty in breeding for 
them. So prevalent was this opinion a few years ago, that then 
trotters were chance horses, no well directed effort was made to 
produce the desired result, by applying the same principles of 
breeding that had been so long acknowledged in the breeding of 
thorough-breds for running races. But when trotting became more 
popular as a public amusement, when the value of good trotting 
horses for road driving became more fully appreciated, and when 
the increased demand ran the prices of even good roadsters into 
the thousands, enlightened breeders began to apply to the breeding 
of trotters the laws of hereditary descent, that had been discovered 
in the breeding of other animals, and with the usual result. 

Now there are numerous large breeding establishments in Ken- 
tucky, New York, Iowa, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, 
Michigan, and perhaps some other states, in which especial atten- 
tion is given to breeding trotters. Beside these breeding studs, 
where much care and judgment are used in the matter, there are 
thousands of farmers and others who in breeding horses, always 
have in their minds the possibility of drawing a capital prize in 
the shape of a fast trotter ; but who have never had an opportunity 
to be well informed in regard to the best method of accomplishing 
that desirable result. 

These farmers and others who only rear one or two colts a year, 
each, are in the aggregate the great horse breeders of the country; 
and it is to them chiefly that the facts and arguments of this 
essay are addressed. 

A very slight examination of the pedigrees of distinguished 
trotters, will show their relationship to each other in so many cases, 
that no one can doubt the derivation of their trotting speed from 
a common ancestry. A few tabulated pedigrees are given at the end 
of this essay, to facilitate the examination of them, and to more fully 
impress on the minds of breeders the importance of breeding their 
mares to stallions of good families, if they would reasonably expect 
success. A horse may trot fast enough to make a public reputation, 
and never beget fast colts, because he does not himself inherit the 
quality strongly from his ancestors; for it may be that the quality 
comes down to him through a single line of descent, and perhaps 
that has been broken by one or more generations that showed no 
speed. In such a case, the horse would be said to have " bred 
back" to a speedy ancestor, and though he might beget fast colts 
with fast mares, the probabilities of their being fast from common 
mares would be very small. John Henry, a chestnut stallion, bred 
in Salem county, New Jersey, trotted well, and begot many colts ; 
but the best of them all, Bet Johnson, was nothing remarkable. 
41* 



486 THE HOUSE. 

John Henry had not the trotting quality by a long and continuous 
line of hereditary descent, and hence the disappointment of breed- 
ers, who depended on his speed alone to give the trotting to his 
colts. Similar cases are quite common. 

If a mare that cannot trot better than four minutes was by a 
horse of good speed and good pedigree, such as Mambrino Chief, 
or American Star, the probabilities of her breeding a fast colt by 
some other good horse, as by Hambletonian, would be much greater 
than if she had no trotting ancestor in her pedigree. Such a mare, 
though not fast herself, might produce a fast colt from a common 
horse ; or if she did not herself produce anything smart, some of 
her descendants in the next generation might show speed. This 
is called breeding back, or atavism, and all breeders are familiar 
with it. 

In choosing a stallion to breed from for speed, the first thing to 
be considered is his pedigree. Many breeders will differ from that 
opinion, but it is not hastily expressed. The longer the lines of 
trotting descent in his pedigree, and the more numerous they are, 
the greater will be the probability that his colts will inherit the 
desired quality. 

Next to pedigree should be considered the speed, bottom, health, 
size, style, color, &c. If the pedigree is good and the horse sound, 
he will beget fast colts, though he may not himself be fast; but 
if he has the speed, too, so much the better. Many diseases are 
hereditary, and the stallion should be sound ; it is poor policy to 
breed from a horse with contracted feet, spavin, ringbone, sprung 
knees, or weak eyes. 

In breeding for speed, it should be remembered that size is 
important if the colt turns out fast, and still more if he does not. 
If he is large enough for taking a carriage with two persons over 
common roads at a lively gait, the breeding was not a failure, 
though he may not be very fast. The style and color are matters 
of taste, about which each breeder will make his own choice. It 
is generally admitted that a good horse is always the right color, 
but he might sometimes be equally good and a better color. If 
the mare has any particular defect, a horse should be chosen that 
will correct it in the progeny. 

Much speculation has been indulged in concerning the relative 
influence of the sire and dam on the offspring. By some it has 
been asserted that if either parent is more vigorous than the other 
by reason of youth, health, or better care, the offspring will most 
resemble that parent. This theory is not sustained by facts. In 
crossing the horse and the ass, some facts of interest are elicited. 
The mule takes size from its dam, the mare; but takes its outward 
form and its voice from the sire, the ass. The ears are long, the 
tail and mane are scantily furnished with hair, and the feet are 



TH.3 AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 487 

narrow. But if the female ass is bred to a horse, the produce, 
called a hinny, is quite unlike the mule. It inherits its organiza- 
tion by the same law, and has the small size of its dam, the female 
ass, with ears, feet, mane, tail, and voice like its sire, the horse. 

Now these statements, though correct in a general sense, need 
some qualification. The ears of the mule are not as long as its 
sire's in proportion to the body, the feet are not as narrow, the tail 
and mane are not so scantily supplied with hair. In all the points 
of greatest resemblance to the ass, there is still some resemblance 
to the other parent, the mare. In other words, the mule does not 
take any part of its conformation from either parent alone; but 
every part is like both parents in some degree. The same remarks 
apply to the hinny. Its mane, tail, ears, and feet are more like a 
horse's than a mule's are, but not exactly like a horse's. In every 
part of its body it has some resemblance to the ass, its dam. The 
point established is this : — That the mule and the hinny both take 
their outward form and appearance from their respective sires 
more than from their dams ; but neither of them is exactly like 
either parent in any respect. 

These facts are constant when the two species are bred together, 
and the produce is a hybrid ; and we might infer that some cer- 
tainty was attainable in the same direction when animals of the 
same species are bred together, as in breeding horses. That is, we 
might expect the colt to always inherit its ears, mane, tail, and 
feet more from the horse than from the mare. The rule may apply 
to some extent, but it is not to be relied on with anything like the 
certainty that is observed in breeding the horse and ass together. 
Rat-tailed stallions beget rat-tailed colts, and hoof-bound mares 
have colts inheriting the same tendency to disease of the feet. 

Every part of every offspring partakes of the quality of both 
parents in some degree ; and in the present state of our knowledge, 
we can neither control nor foresee the amount of any particular 
quality that the offspring will inherit from either parent. 

In a family of children, one may be tall like the father and have 
black hair like the mother; another may be short like the mother 
with light hair like the father; and a third may have stature and 
complexion that partake more evenly of the qualities of both 
parents. If three more children are to be born to the same 
parents, no physiologist can predict their stature nor the color of 
their hair. If parents are much alike in all respects, the children 
will be much alike; but the children of the same family will be 
much diversified in appearance and character if their parents arc 
much different from each other in these respects. If parents are 
alike in any particular, though different in all other respects, theii 
children will all inherit that quality strongly which comes from 
both parents, and will transmit it to the next generation with 



488 THE HORSE. 

greater certainty than if they had inherited it from only one parert. 
Of course these rules may all have exceptions; atavism, or breed- 
ing back, may modify the results. 

If one parent belongs to a particular breed, as a cow to the 
Devonshires, and is bred with another of no particular breed, the 
offspring will resemble the full-bred parent more than the other 
of common stock, because the form, color, &c, of the full-bred 
parent have become fixed by a long line of ancestry in which all 
the ancestors had the same qualities. It does not follow that the 
full-br<:d parent gives more than half of the quality to the off- 
spring, but only that the other half may resemble some of the 
ancestors of common stock that were quite unlike the low-bred 
parent. Thus, if a Devonshire cow were bred to a common bull 
of a white color, more of the calves would be red than white, 
because all the ancestors on the cow's side were red, and a part of 
them on the bull's side were probably of the same color. As many 
as bred back to the Devonshire side for color would be red ; those 
that bred back to the common side for color might be black, or 
brindle, or any other color. It is simply a case in which atavism 
has an influence, as it always has in all breeding. There is no 
law by which a high-bred parent transmits more than half of the 
organism of the offspring; the low-bred parent has an equal iuflu 
ence in the matter; but there is more probability that the progeny 
will resemble the high-bred parent than the common one. If by 
atavism it resembles any ancestor on the well-bred side, it resem- 
bles the parent on the same side, for they are all much alike; but 
if it breeds back to the low-bred side, there has been so much 
diversity in the ancestors on that side that nothing is certain. 

In breeding for trotters, these principles must always be con- 
sidered. We have no breed of trotters that can be called tho- 
rough-bred or full-blooded trotters, in the same sense as we speak 
of the thorough-bred race horse, or of the thorough-bred Durham 
or Devonshire cattle ; but we have families of trotters, in which 
the trotting quality has been transmitted for several generations, 
and in several lines of descent; and, in breediug, the best practice 
will be that which most nearly conforms to the principles here 
stated. The more trotting quality in the family, the greater the 
probability of its being transmitted to the descendants. 

In choosing a mare to breed from, the same rules are applicable 
as in choosing a stallion. If a breeder chance to have a mare of 
good speed and good pedigree, he may expect more from her than 
from a common mare if both are put to the same horse. It is 
somewhat the fashion to select thorough-bred mares to breed to 
trotting stallions, that the spirit and endurance of the thorough- 
bred may be combined in the colts with the trotting action ; and 
rotting mares are put to thorough-bred stallions with the same 



THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 



489 



object in view. The practice is good, and will improve the breed 
of trotters in the long run; but for immediate results, more trot- 
ting speed may be expected when trotting mares are bred to trot- 
ting stallions. It should not be disregarded that we already have 
trotting families quite equal to thorough-breds in spirit and bot- 
tom ; and though these may have been inherited from a thorough- 
bred ancestry, that is not a reason why we should breed again to 
thorough-breds and risk the loss of the trotting quality. The 
famous trotter Flora Temple was frequently put to Mambrinc 




FLORA TEMPLE. 



Pilot without success, but she became with foal by a two-year old 
Old mares will often breed to a colt when they will not to a ma 
tured horse. The colt selected on this occasion was Rysdyk, by 
Rysdyk's Hambletonian, out of a thorough-bred mare by Lexing- 
ton. Now, this dam of Rysdyk had no trotting quality, and he is 
just as likely to inherit running speed from his dam as trotting 
speed from his sire. Or he may take the trotting action from his 
sire and have that action made good by the Lexington side of his 
pedigree — Lexington being the sire of more winners in running 



490 THE HORSE. 

races than any other h se in America. But the probability is 
strong that Rysdyk will not be very speedy, though he will proba- 
bly have good bottom, and still stronger that his colts out of Flora 
will not equal their celebrated dam. 

Flora Temple's pedigree is not very well known, but this much 
appears to be reliable : Her sire was One-Eyed Kentucky Hun- 
ter, he by Kentucky Hunter, the sire of the famous pacer Oneida 
Chief. Her dam, Madam Temple, was by a spotted horse called 
an Arabian, though he probably was not. That her trotting waa 
inherited from her sire's side is quite certain, and her dam also 
may have added something, as she afterward produced a very good 
trotter, Pilot Temple, but he was by a very good horse, Alexan- 
der's Pilot, Jr. Though Flora Temple has enough in her pedigree, 
so far as known, to account for her trotting, the probability of 
speed in her colts by Rysdyk is not very great. It is a pity she 
would not breed to Mambrino Pilot, that any deficiency in her own 
pedigree might have been made up by his extraordinary good 
breeding. The portrait of Flora Temple and her colt, facing the 
title page, is from a photograph, and gives a very good idea of 
them as they appear in their winter coats. 

The effect on offspring of breeding blood relations together, 
called breeding in-and-in, is a matter that has received much atten- 
tion from breeders and physiologists; and these two classes of 
observers have arrived at somewhat different conclusions about it ; 
the physiologists condemning the practice among human beings, 
the breeders approving of it among domestic stock. As the same 
laws govern all nature, this difference of opinion must grow out of 
an imperfect knowledge of the law, and might be reconciled by a 
more comprehensive view of the facts relating to the subject. 

When blood-relations intermarry, the children are often imper- 
fect, being idiotic, or blind, or scrofulous ; or if they escape these 
and a host of other ills that in-bred flesh is heir to, they are sel- 
dom so healthy and strong in mind and body as their parents were. 

This is too well known to admit of a doubt, though, happily, 
the evil consequences of such intermarriages are not always notice- 
able in such unpleasant forms. On the other baud, many good 
horses have been the result of close in-and-in breeding. By refer- 
ring to the pedigree of Rysdyk's Hambletonian, Table I., it will 
be seen that Abdallah was by Mambrino, out of his half-sister ; 
Hambletonian was by Messenger, out of one of his own daugh- 
ters; and One-Eye was by in-bred Hambletonian, out of his half- 
sister. Then comes one out-cross with Bellfounder, and again the 
offspring of that cross, the Charles Kent Mare, is bred to in- 
bred Abdallah of the same stock. The result was a stallion that 
has for several years stood at the head of the list of tro'ting foal 
getters. 



THE AMERICAN TROTTING Hv.RSE. 491 

How are these two classes of facts to be reconciled? The 
theory that gregarious animals — animals that, like horses, cattle, 
and sheep, go naturally in herds — are an exception to the rule that 
in-breeding is attended by debility in the offspring, is not very 
satisfactory. It cannot be true, as has been asserted, that in a 
wild state one stallion would keep his own herd of mares and all 
of his own female progeny to himself for several years, and that 
hence breeding with his own offspring would be in accordance 
with Nature's plan. In a wild state there would be as many 
males as females; his herd of mares would be but one or two; 
half of his offspring would be males ; they would each contend 
for and obtain some sexual opportunities ; the fillies of one sire 
would naturally be squandered everywhere among other herds 
before they were old enough to breed ; and all the conditions 
would favor continual out-crossing rather than in-breeding. Pigs 
are gregarious, and in-breeding spoils the breed of them in one 
generation. No matter how near the hog-breeder has brought his 
stock to perfection, one single in-breeding spoils all. In chickens, 
if in-breeding is continued for several years, the first noticeable 
result is their increased productiveness of eggs. The stock be- 
comes smaller and more delicate with each successive in-breeding ; 
and all weakly animals are more prolific than stronger ones, hence 
the increased number of eggs. When the conditions of life de- 
press and retard the development of plants or animals, they become 
more prolific because their offspring will come into being under 
circumstances unfavorable to the continuance of their existence, 
and Nature equalizes the chances by producing more of them. 
It is in accordance with this law that fat animals and idle animals 
are not sure to breed ; that families living luxuriously for a few 
generations have very few children, while those that " live from 
hand to mouth" are proverbially fruitful — " A fool for luck, and 
a poor man for children." The chickens are more prolific for a 
few generations, but continue the in-breeding, and they become 
so very weakly and small that the experiment will end in a good 
out-cross. If it were continued longer in the same direction, the 
result would probably be the extinction of the stock. 

Hambletonian, Plato, and Abdallah, the in-bred descendants 
of Messenger, were remarkable for giving the trotting quality to 
their descendants. Taking Messenger as a single source of the 
trotting quality, and supposing there was not another horse in the 
country above mediocrity in that respect, we might expect some 
of his fillies to inherit his trotting in great degree. To perpetuate 
that particular quality in her offspring, it would be better to breed 
her to her sire than to any horse of another stock, though her 
offspring might lose something in stamina by the in-breeding. It 
might be still better to breed her to any son of Messenger that 



492 THE HORSE. 

also, equally with herself, inherited the trotting quality. In 
either case, her colts would take the trotting from two directions, 
and would consequently transmit it with more certainty to their 
descendants than if they inherited it from only one side. The 
trotting quality was a peculiarity of Messenger, and by in-breeding 
it was perpetuated ; so would any other peculiarity have been — 
any imperfection. If Messenger had been lop-eared, that quality 
could have been perpetuated in the same way ; but as breeders 
would not choose his lop-eared colts to breed from, and would 
choose his perfect colts, the desirable qualities of 'the stock could 
be, and would be, perpetuated, and the defects would become 
extinguished from his family. 

The purpose of in-breeding the Messenger family was not, at 
first, to produce trotters ; but the result followed without regard 
to the intention. Whatever loss of stamina accompanied the 
practice was remedied by out-crossing, and the trotting was still 
preserved by careful selection. 

Taking this view of the subject, we see how the perpetuation 
of any particular quality may be effected by in-breeding, and how, 
also, the evils of the practice may be to a great extent avoided. 
It should be borne in mind that Messenger was remarkably free 
from defects, and had so much strength of constitution that his 
descendants from good mares might be in-bred and still give good 
constitutions to their offspring. It was because of this excellence 
that the in-breeding was practised. Not for the purpose of re- 
producing in the progeny any particular quality, but with a desire 
to get as much as possible of the general characteristics of a horse 
recognised as greatly superior to all others in the same vicinity. 
The same reasons that induced to the practice made it physiologi- 
cally safe. 

Now let us suppose that another equally good trotting family 
had existed at the same time and place, and that instead of breed- 
ing Messenger's descendants together closely they had been crossed 
with the other family. The result would have been equal speed, 
with equal power of transmitting it to offspring, and better con- 
stitutions. There came to this country another thorough-bred, 
that was foaled in England one year before Messenger, and died 
here, one year before Messenger died. His name was Diomed, 
and a reference to the tabulated pedigrees will show how much 
many of our best trotters are indebted to him for their speed. 
He was not brought to this country until he was twenty-two years 
old, and was kept in Virginia, while Messenger was in the North. 
Diomed's colts were nearly all thorough-breds, and used for run- 
ning, not trotting. Trotting did not become so highly valued in 
the South, and how much trotting quality the immediate descend- 
ants of Diomed possessed was not know: . The best results have 



THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 493 

followed breeding the two families together after several genera- 
tions of descent ; and there is no reason to doubt that if Diomed 
had come with Messenger to this country, and had stood some- 
where near Philadelphia or New York, instead of coming seven- 
teen years later, and standing in Virginia, the two families would 
have been inter-bred sooner. Two good results would have 
attended : first, all the advantage of breeding trotters with trotters 
without the disadvantage of in-breeding; and, second, the inter- 
breeding of two good trotting families before the trotting quality 
was diluted by other crosses not possessing it. American Eclipse, 
who gave so much trotting quality to his descendants, combined 
both bloods. . See pedigree of Mambrino Pilot, Table II. Eclipse 
was known only as a running horse, and was one of the very best 
thoi-ough-breds ever foaled in America. He was equally distin- 
guished on the turf and in the stud. Post Boy, a distinguished 
race-horse that lived to a great age, had many trotting descend- 
ants. He, too, combined the blood of Messenger and Diomed. 
See pedigree of Young Morrill, Table V. All the trotting of 
Morrill on his sire's side was inherited from Post Boy. Another 
thorough-bred of the same descent was Cock-of-the-Rock. He 
too was a race-horse that begot trotters. Golddust inherits all 
of his trotting from him. See Table IV. These and other simi- 
lar cases that might be adduced, show that the produce of a cross 
between two trotting families has equal power of transmitting its 
peculiar qualities to offspring that the produce of in-breeding has. 

In breeding two tx'otting families together, if one has any defect 
the other may correct it, as it is improbable that both will have 
the same defect; but by in-breeding any defect of the family will 
be pretty surely perpetuated, as the colt will inherit it from both 
sides. Now that we have trotters enough to allow of a free selec- 
tion without breeding near relations together, there are no reasons 
why the practice should be continued, and many why it should 
not be. 

The opinion is quite prevalent among breeders, that every horse 
a mare is bred to modifies, not only his own get, but all the colts 
she may afterwards have by any other horses. Without denying 
the facts set forth in the body of this book by Stonehenge, of a 
mare that had colts by a horse, and that they resembled the 
quagga she was first bred to, I am prepared to assert that no such 
effects are commonly noticed when mares are bred to different 
stallions. I have looked for such results in various species of ani- 
mals — the human included — and could never detect the slightest 
resemblance in the offspring of one sire to any other sire the dam 
had previously borne offspring to. Practically, the theory is of no 
value whatever. Another notion, about equally common, is, that 
a mare that has bred a mule will not breed to a horse. It is 
42 



494 THE HORSE. 

equally unfounded. Mares are often bred to torses after having 
been bred to an ass, and nobody ever sees a foal by a horse from 
such a mare look like a mule. I have known several instances of 
white women having mulatto children, and afterwards having 
children by white men j and in no instance was the influence of 
the negro perceptible on the child of the Caucasian father. If 
any man has a good mare that has produced a colt from a scrub 
stallion, he need not hesitate, on that account, to breed her to a 
good horse, if he has an opportunity. 

Breeders often desire that a colt shall be a male, or a female ; 
but that is always left to chance for the best of reasons. It is 
probably possible, however, to discover the laws governing the 
production of sex, and also possible to so control their action as to 
attain the desired result. Some chance experiments in breeding 
dogs, so long ago as 1845, induced me to a more careful investiga- 
tion of the subject. I discovered, that if a slut were kept until 
near the last of her heat, before a dog was admitted to her, the 
pups would be chiefly males ; but if she were at large, with all 
the dogs of the neighborhood, from the beginning of the heat, 
they would be mostly females. Further experiments, and on 
other species of animals, were prevented by removal to a city ; but 
having called public attention to the matter, in lectures on physi- 
ology in several states, others have pursued the investigation with 
very satisfactory results. Dog-breeders make practical application 
of the discovery in hundreds of instances, and a few dairy-men 
have found it applicable to cows. The theory is, that if the female 
is long in heat before conception, it implies a scarcity of males, 
and Nature supplies the deficiency by producing them. I also 
noticed that if a cock had many hens, the chicks would be mostly 
males. This I had but one opportunity of observing. The single 
observation, however, is in conformity with the same law. Apply- 
ing the law to horses, it would follow that, other things being 
equal, the more mares he served in one season, the more of his 
colts would be males. The action of the law would be modified 
by the time of the mare's heat when put to him, and by the cir- 
cumstance that his sire, his grandsire, and so on, for many genera- 
tions, had been used to serving many mares in one season — so that 
the power to do so without forcing the action of the law would 
have become hereditary. If the mare were served in the begin- 
ning of her heat, we might expect a mare foal ; and if in the last 
part of the erotic season we might, by the same rule, expect a 
horse foal. Of course, the conditions mentioned as affecting the 
stallion might modify the result. If a mare were put to a horse 
in the last part of her heat, and if the horse had quite recently 
eerved one or more other mares, the conditions would be favorable 
on both sides to the production of a male offspring. If the case 



THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 495 

were reversed — if she were in the first part of her season of ex- 
citement, and he had not served a mare for a considerable time, 
the conditions would favor the begetting of a female. 

Many horsemen attempt to discern the speed of a horse in his 
form, and in his way of going. Various signs are relied on, by 
those who know less than they think they do, but there is but one 
sign, and it is infallible; it is that the horse goes fast when tried. 
A shoulder that slants well backward to the withers is considered 
a good point in any horse — but Messenger had upright shoulders, 
and so have some very good trotters of to-day. A long back, with 
an open flank between the hip and ribs, is thought to allow of a 
long stride, and some good trotters have that conformation ; but 
many others have short backs, and are ribbed close up to the hips. 
Of these two forms, the last is the best, as it indicates that the 
animal will keep in good condition on less food. Flat-sided horses 
have trotted fast, but not because they were flat-sided. War Eagle 
had that conformation, and though he trotted in the best of com- 
pany, he was not an all-day horse. I drove him a year in a 
country practice before he trotted in public, and did not consider 
the narrow chest and small abdomen any advantage. A steep 
rump is a sign that a horse paces ; but with the same form he may 
be a trotter ; and in either case it has no relation to speed. The 
hind legs may be more crooked or more straight than usual, and 
the fore legs may be a little sprung forward, or a little set back, 
like a calf's ; the pasterns may be thick or slender, upright or 
oblique ; but none of these forms indicate speed, nor the absence 
of it. Many fast horses are short in the rump — that is, from the 
croup, or highest point, to the root of the tail. This is pretty 
common among trotters ; but some that are not fast have the same 
shape. 

In the way of going, there is as much difference with as little 
significance. Some lift their fore-feet very high, with a great 
deal of knee action ; others go fast, with a low, long stride. There 
is a way of reaching out with the fore-feet, that seems utterly in- 
compatible with speed. It is a long, pitching step, such as is seen 
in horses trotting slowly and loftily in a field when startled. To 
go fast, the fore-feet should be struck at the ground, as if they 
were pulling the horse along, whether the stride be long or short. 

If a horse stands with the toes of his fore-feet turned in, he will 
paddle in trotting; that is, he will swing his feet out right and 
left from a straight line ; and the foot that is most turned in at 
the toe in standing will be most swung around like a paddle in a 
mush-pot, in trotting. The movement is unsightly and objection- 
able, but not absolutely incompatible with speed. If the toes are 
turned out in standing, they will be turned in in trotting, and may 
strike the opposite knee. This is so common in fast trotters, as to 



496 THE HORSE. 

have received the appellation of speedy-cut. It should not he 
inferred, that cutting the knee is any sign of speed. It only hap- 
pens, that a horse with this defect in his way of going, hits his 
knee when he goes fast euough to get his foot up that high. It 
is a serious objection, but many more fast horses have that action 
than the opposite one of paddling. 

Nearly every good trotter goes with his hind-feet wide apart, 
when he goes fast. There are some exceptions to this rule, but 
they are not numerous. Some horses have a short stride, and as 
they generally show plenty of knee-action, and step fast, they ap- 
pear to go very fast, and so they do sometimes. The Cannucks, from 
panada, generally go in that way ; and all of such steppers are 
usually spirited and pleasant road horses, being free-goers. Long- 
striders are sometimes rather heavy in a jog-trot; but they get 
over the ground faster than they appear to, and on the road will 
often pass short-steppers that appear to be going as fast, or faster. 
Many of the best are long-striders, and, other things being equal, 
the probabilities are greater of a horse going fast in a long stride 
than in a short one. 

Hiram Woodruff, in his admirable work on " The Trotting 
Horse of America," expresses the opinion that short-steppers are 
better weight-pullers at speed, and gives reasons — speculative rea- 
sons — for the opinion : but his own instances do not sustain the 
rule, unless we accept the logic, that as exceptions prove the rule, 
the more exceptions the stronger the proof. The truth appears to 
be, that the ability to pull weight does not depend much on the 
stride. The strongest movers are stout, muscular horses, broad 
behind, with the knees and hocks let well down ; that is, with 
short cannon bones. 

A horse may be lazy, and yet trot fast when called on ; or he 
may be very spirited, always willing to do his best, and not be 
able to trot in four minutes. A very strong horse, that can trot 
off with a loaded market-wagon behind him at a good gait, and 
keep it up for miles, may not be a fast trotter at any weight. Or 
a horse may have most excellent bottom — may take two men in a 
wagon over common roads sixty miles in a day, and repeat it every 
day in the week ; or he may be good for ten miles an hour under 
the same circumstances, and not be able to trot a single mile in 
four minutes. 

Speed, then, does not depend entirely on the form, nor on the 
way of going, nor on the strength, nor on the spirit of a horse 
The value of a fast trotter may depend greatly upon these quali- 
ties, but not his speed. Any form, and any style of going, may 
do, if he can step fast enough ; and the power to step fast does not 
depend on form, spirit, strength, nor stamina — though all of these 



THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 497 

do modify the manifestation of that power upon which speed does 
depend. 

Let us now consider the essential element of speed at any gait, 
whether it be running, pacing, or trotting. All the vn 3vement is 
effected by the contraction of those masses of lean .neat called 
muscles. The muscles of voluntary motion are each attached to 
two bones by its two extremities, and the bones being attached to 
each other by a movable joint, when the muscle contracts one or 
both of the bones must move ; and, of course the rapidity of the 
movement depends on the rapidity of the contraction. An animal 
wills the movement of a limb ; that will, which originates in the 
brain, is transmitted through nerves to the muscles; they contract 
and the limb moves. It would seem, then, that if a horse desired 
to go fast, and his muscles were large enough and his joints supple, 
he must needs do so whenever he tries ; for if the muscles obey 
the will, and the will is that they shall contract quickly, the whole 
thing would be accomplished. Speed would then depend on the 
size of the muscles, and the willingness of the horse to contract 
them rapidly. But the facts are clearly against such a theory ; for 
all have noticed that a highly spirited horse that is very strong to 
pull a load, may, not be able to go fast in any gait. 

The truth is, that all power to move, lies not in the brain which 
is the seat of the will, nor in the muscles which are the place of 
the movement, but between the two, in the spinal cord, which 
is the centre of the nervous system, and the generator of the 
power. The spinal cord lies in the back bone, filling the canal 
or hole that extends through its whole length, and giving off nerves 
from every part of it that go to all parts of the body. It is con- 
nected to the brain, and appears like a prolongation of it from the 
cavity of the skull along the cavity of the spine ; but the rational 
view of the spinal cord, and the one that is sustained by compara- 
tive anatomy, is that which considers it the centre of the nervous 
system ; the brain being an extension of it in one direction, and 
the nerves an extension of it in another direction, the whole con- 
stituting the nervous system. 

The brain is the seat of all mental manifestations — of thought, 
memory, love, fear, emulation, courage, &c. The disposition and 
character depend upon the brain, but it is not necessary to animal 
life. The nerves extend to every part of the body ; some of them 
convey sensations to the brain, as of heat, or cold, or pain ; others 
of them go to the muscles, and convey to them the power that is 
generated in the spinal cord by which they contract. The will 
to move is conceived in the brain, and goes to the spinal cord, 
which then generates the power to move. The power, which for 
convenience of language we will call nerve force, is sent through 
the nerves and expended in the muscles, effecting their contraction 
42* 2 I 



498 THE HORSE. 

and a consequent movement of the bones to which they are 
attached. The brain may be compared to a telegraph operator, 
the spinal cord to his galvanic battery, and the nerves to the 
wires. A chicken with its head off kicks and flutters with strength 
enough to fly over a barn, or to run around it. The spinal cord 
generates the power for a short time, and would do so longer but 
for the loss of blood; but the brain, that gives intelligent direc- 
tion to the power, is not there. The battery is sending its elec- 
tricity along the wires without the control of the operator. 

If enough of the nerve force is sent to the muscles to move the 
body a mile in six minutes, it is six minutes in being generated. 
If the same amount of nerve force can be generated and sent to 
the muscles in three minutes, we might suppose that the body 
would be moved the same distance in three minutes ; and herein 
would appear to lie all the difference of speed. But the amount 
of force generated by the nervous centre, and expended by the 
muscles, in a given time, does not exactly explain the difference 
of speed. One horse may expend as much nerve force in pulling 
a load a quarter of a mile in three minutes, as another does in 
trotting a whole mile in the same time, and yet not be able to trot 
a mile in four minutes. The speed depends on the ability of the 
spinal cord to generate and send to the different sets of muscles 
concerned in locomotion, the required amounts of nerve force in a 
quick succession of discharges ; and on the capability of the nerves 
to transmit it to the muscles in large quantity in a short time. 
The difference between trotting fast and drawing a heavy load, is 
not in the amount of force used, but in the manner of using it. 
In one case, the nerve force is sent to a muscle during the whole 
time of taking a slow step with a heavy load ; and in the other, it 
is all expended in an instant, causing the muscle to contract 
quickly, and thereby projecting the horse rapidly forward — the 
acquired momentum continuing after the muscle ceases to con- 
tract. It is like driving a nail by a succession of blows, that 
could not be moved by the same aggregate amount of pressure dif- 
fused and continued over the whole time of driving. 

The essential quality of speed, at any gait, is therefore a cer- 
tain organization of the nervous system, and this is the one thing 
needful in every case. This is what we breed for when we breed 
for speed ; this is the quality that has been transmitted through 
so many generations from Messenger, Diomed, Pilot, Bellfounder, 
and other progenitors of American trotters. A descendant of 
Messenger might have neither his form, size, nor way of going, 
but if he had a similar organization of the nervous system, he 
would have speed. We cannot detect this peculiarity of organiza- 
tion by any outward sign ; we can know of it only by its mani- 
festations. We know that it is hereditary, and we also know that 



THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 499 

it may be associated with any form. We therefore must respect 
the pedigrees of the horses and mares we breed from ; and the more 
of the trotting quality we find in their pedigrees, the more reason 
we will have for expecting a fast colt. Form, size, style, and 
action are all important matters in the constitution of any horse, 
and particularly important in trotters, because they are kept for 
use and for pleasure-driving as well as for racing ; but the speed 
is not a result of any combination of these qualities. The right 
kind of a nervous system will accomplish more if the form and 
action are good than if they are bad; and all the necessary condi- 
tions of speed may exist in a horse, and yet he may be valueless 
because of an incurably bad temper, or because he inherits a 
strong tendency to some disqualifying disease. These matters 
every breeder will use his own judgment on. If a mare is good 
in all respects except speed, and is bred to a horse of speed, but 
of bad organization in other respects, the colt may have all the 
good qualities of the dam and the speed of the sire; or may have 
the bad qualities of the sire and the want of speed of the dam. 
It is impossible to foresee in what proportion the two parents will 
transmit their respective qualities to the offspring ; so that the 
safest rule in breeding, is to have as much of all the qualities we 
breed for in both parents as is possible. The speed should be in 
both families to make its inheritance certain ; but if it is strongly 
inherited by one side, we may reasonably expect all of the progeny 
to go faster than the parent that is not speedy. Thus a slow mare 
bred to a good trotting-foal getter, will always produce faster colts 
than she would if bred to a slow stallion like herself. 

The condition of parents at the time of conception has a power- 
ful influence on the progeny — whether it be mental or physical 
condition. Offspring inherit both the congenital and the acquired 
qualities of parents, as is well exemplified in the familiar case of 
dogs taught to hunt birds, and when they are found, to stand and 
wait for a man to shoot them, instead of rushing on to catch them 
as the instinctive impulse would prompt. The standing is an 
acquired quality, the effect of teaching, and yet it is transmitted 
by hereditary descent as certainly as any other quality. A well- 
bred setter or pointer pup will stand stanchly at a game bird, when 
only four months old, without any teaching. The effect on offspring 
of the transient condition of parents, may be seen in every family. 
No two children of the same parents are alike, unless they be 
twins. The reason is plain; the parents change from year to 
year, and the children inherit the changed conditions. The father 
may have a lawsuit, and a child may inherit the contentiousness 
and obstinacy engendered by it ; he may afterwards be engaged in 
active business enterprises, and transmit energy and a clear intel- 
lect to another child ; a third may be idiotic, because his father 



500 THE HORSE. 

was enervated by a debauch. Many causes of change will occui 
to each parent in the year or two that elapses between the births 
of children, and these changes in the parents modify the constitu- 
tions of the children. Twins may be much alike, because there 
is no time for change, commonly, between the times of their con- 
ception ; though they may differ by resembling different parents, 
or by an interval between the times of conception, or even by being 
the children of different fathers. 

It is not essential to the transmission of acquired qualities, that 
they shall bave been long acquired ; a few days of strength or of 
debility, even perhaps a single hour of difference ia the parent, 
may make a life-long difference to the child. A mental impression, 
however short, if only strong enough, may be transmitted. Well- 
authenticated cases have been related to me, one of a full-bred 
Durham calf that resembled neither parent, but a brindle ox that 
strongly impressed the minds of both parents at the time of con- 
ception ; and another of a litter of pigs of the white variety, com- 
mon in Chester and Delaware counties, and famous everywhere, 
that were part of them black, because a black sow from Maryland 
was conspicuously present at the time of conception. Several 
cases have come within my own knowledge, of mares that pro- 
duced foals colored and marked like some stable or field companion, 
and entirely unlike both parents in that respect. 

It is a popular belief that impressions made on the mind of the 
mother during pregnancy, may be transmitted to the offspring; but 
that cannot be true, because there is no connection by nerves 
between the mother and child ; and a mental impression could not 
be conveyed by the blood. All of such supposed cases were pro- 
bably instances in which the impression was made on the mind of 
the mother before conception — became a part of herself — and was 
then transmitted to her offspring by the same law that any other 
quality of a parent is transmitted. This accounts, probably, for 
the well-authenticated case, before alluded to, of colts resembling 
a quagga that was not their sire. The mare had a distinct recol- 
lection of the strange beast associated in her mind, with the 
sexual intercourse she had first with him; and subsequent occa- 
sions of a similar kind with horses recalled the mental impression, 
and it was transmitted, being, and having been for years, a part 
of her mental constitution. 

It follows, that in breeding for trotting horses, we should not be 
unmindful of the temporary condition of the sire and dam. Mares 
are generally worked, and are nearly always in very good condition 
for breeding. With stallions, it is usually quite different. They 
are kept, as if their use was procreating colts for beef, rather than 
speed, spirit, and endurance. They are overfed and underworked; 
they are fat and feeble; their muscles and ligaments are not 



THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 501 

strengthened by exercise ; their blood is not purified by the 
increased secretions that accompany a quickened circulation of 
blood ; their courage and endurance are not developed by a 
long journey occasionally; their emulation is not stimulated by 
racing; and consequently these qualities, all so desirable in the 
offspring, are not transmitted in the intensity and power they might 
be if a more rational plan were pursued. The health and longevity 
of the stallion are endangered by these debilitating causes, and the 
best horse might lose reputation as a good trotting-foal getter 
in a few years of the enervating management too common every- 
where. It is supposed by many, that a horse that serves many 
mares has demand enough upon his strength without working. 
The truth is, he needs plenty of well-regulated exercise to keep 
his strength up, and his health good, that he may safely and pro- 
fitably meet the great demand upon his vitality. 

It is becoming quite common to test the speed of trotting colts 
at three, at two, and even at one year old ; and with proper care, it 
may be done safely. The trial should be made after a little pre- 
paration, by gradually increased exercise, and the distance should 
be short. Curiosity being gratified by a' few trials, should be also 
satisfied, for colts cannot stand much speeding without danger of 
injury. 

To teach a young horse to trot well requires judgment and care. 
He is to be improved by practice, there is no other way ; and he 
should be made to like it, not fear it. He should make his best 
effort, willingly, eagerly, and doing so repeatedly, he cannot fail 
to improve. Kindness and gentleness are always necessary in the 
management of horses, and especially so in the taming and teach- 
ing of young horses. No horse should be put to a high rate of 
speed until he is first warmed up and breathing freely, and then 
he should be rested a little by a slow gait, but not allowed to cool 
off before he is called on to do his best. 

The young horse does not always know just what is wanted of 
him, and it is therefore a good plan to trot him on the same piece 
of level road always, and when he comes to it he will expect to 
trot. He should never be made tired of it, but always stopped 
while he is still anxious to go. The training is as much a mental 
as a physical discipline; it must be both. Some horses need the 
stimulation of the voice or whip; others will require only to be 
held to their work. The dull one should be stimulated by emula- 
tion — another horse should be trotted or galloped alongside of 
him ; and whether the accompanying horse should be kept just 
even with him, or a little before or behind, must be ascertained by 
trial. An intelligent horse becomes discouraged by being beaten 
in a race, and either breaks into a run to catch up, or quits mak- 
ing any strong effort. Young horses being more impulsive and 



502 THE HORSE. 

less under the influence of training and experience, feel the mor- 
tification of defeat more than older ones. Some colts are so 
anxious to beat, that it is impossible to keep them trotting with a 
competitor of equal or greater speed, but if put in double harness 
they understand that they cannot get ahead of the other by run- 
ning, and will do their very best trotting honestly. All animals, 
except men, have more intelligence than they get credit for; and 
a great many failures in the management of horses come from 
men's over-estimate of themselves, and their failure to appreciate 
and properly regard the intelligence of the other animal. 

The ground should be smooth, and level, or a little descending. 
If rough it throws him out of his step ; and if ascending he may 
get to hopping, or hipping, as it is sometimes called — that is, he 
does not trot square, but goes in a half gallop with his hind legs, 
as an easier way of taking the weight along, while he trots with 
his fore legs. Taking too much weight, or being pushed beyond 
his speed, may make him do it; and the remedies are, avoidance 
of the causes, and driving at a moderate speed until the habit is 
forgotten. The common notion that a horse can better trot up hill 
than down, is too absurd to merit serious refutation. Whether the 
hill be steep or otherwise, long or short, the horse can trot down 
it, either under saddle or in harness, easier than he can trot up it. 

A high speed for a short distance does not injure even quite 
young horses, but keeping them at it until the ligaments that bind 
the bones together at the joints are overtaxed, and feel sore the 
next day, is the way to stiffen the joints, to cause knuckling of the 
hind fetlock joints, and springing of the knees. No horse should 
be so tired by a day's work that a night's rest will not make him 
fresh again, and this is especially true of young horses. If a 
horse is worked moderately at first, and a little more is exacted of 
him in each succeeding day, but without violation of the rule just 
stated, his powers will gradually increase to meet the increased 
demand ; but if that rule is violated for days in succession, the 
horse's powers daily diminish, and the experiment will end in 
injury to his health and spirit. 

In trotting young horses the greatest difficulty is in keeping 
them squarely at their work. They will try to go as fast as they 
can, and they know that they can run faster than they can trot. 
The colt that can naturally trot very fast will have less desire to 
run, and being necessarily descended from trotting ancestors, he 
will naturally be more disposed to do his best, going in that way. 
If possible, he should never be driven " off his feet," but should 
be made to understand that he has but one way of going, and that 
is trotting. 

Inexperienced drivers are never satisfied with their horse's trot- 
ting until they have driven them out of their gait, and then they 



THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 503 

are more dissatisfied than before. Rude snatching and sawing of 
the mouth by the bit make matters worse — but the man who 
always makes his horse break up, always punishes the horse for 
doing it ; and particularly is this true when some other horse is 
out-footing his. He then imagines that his horse is not doing as 
much as he could, if he were disposed to; the whip is brought 
into passionate use, and the bit is cruelly made an instrument of 
torture to counteract the effect of the whip. This kind of driving 
teaches a young horse that trotting is to always end in a break, 
and the break in a painful and alarming punishment. These 
unskilful, ungentlemanly drivers find a remedy for the horse's too 
much willingness in fatiguing him by a long drive at speed, after 
which the poor creature may stick to his trot from sheer exhaus- 
tion. A more skilful driver would get all the speed the horse was 
capable of while he was fresh and strong, and without injury to 
his health or disposition. A high-strung young horse may need 
to have the wire-edge taken off sometimes before he will go 
steadily; and it should be done by a long jog-trot, with a few 
short brushes of speed occasionally, which will work off his exu- 
berance of spirits without injury. 

No trotter attains his greatest speed before maturity ; and the 
best of them continue to improve up to fifteen and eighteen years 
of age. To do this a horse must have a good constitution ; one 
that will carry him to a great age without disease, and will stand 
the hard work necessary to develop his powers. Breeding from 
such horses will therefore improve the stock of the country — not 
only in speed, but also in stamina. The cultivation of thorough- 
breds, for running races, has been of immense benefit to the road 
stock of the country, by improving its speed and stamina, and by 
giving it better form and style. The American trotter gets more 
of his peculiar excellence from the thorough-breds, than from all 
other sources. But a thorough-bred of acknowledged excellence 
as the sire of racers, might be utterly worthless to improve the 
road stock. Lexington, the sire of more winners than any other 
horse now in this country, is blind; his sire, Boston, was blind; 
and many of the Lexington colts go blind at an early age. In 
1868 two of his get were foaled blind. Yet the best thorough- 
bred mares are bred to him, because the progeny will probably 
keep good sight until five years old, before which age nearly all 
the racing is done. If he were a trotting stallion breeders would 
not use him, because his colts would go blind before they had 
attained their greatest usefulness. 

We may, therefore, reasonably expect the breeding of trotting 
horses to improve the road stock of the country, even far more 
than was done by the thorough-breds. A thorough-bred that fails 
as a racer, may be only a middling kind of a horse for any other 



504 



THE HORSE. 



use ; but tbe trotting horse that may not be among the fastest on 
the course, may, and probably will be, a very superior road horse. 
The following table shows the best performances from the begin- 
ning of trotting as a public amusement in this country in 1818, 
to 1868, in which year a larger number of very fast horses trotted 
in public than in any former period. The driving of horses long 
distances at speed, is a practice that cannot be too strongly repro- 
bated. Four horses have trotted twenty miles within an hour, and 
several others have tried it and failed. Black Joke, that trotted 
fifty miles in less than four hours, was severely injured by it. The 
Orange County horse, that trotted a hundred miles in less than 
nine hours, died the same day. Such cruelties bring discredit on 
trotting races, and should not be countenanced. Ordinary racing 
is not cruel — albeit, many good people who never saw a race think 
differently ; and though these performances at long distances are 
introduced to show the utmost capacity of horses, it is " devoutly 
to be wished," that there may never be any more to record. 

One Mile. 



Year. 


Name of Horse. 


Place of Performance. 


Style of Going. 


Time. 


1818 


Boston Blue, . . . 


Boston, 


Harness, 


3m. 0s. 


1824 


Albany Pony, . 






Long Island, 


Saddle, 


2m. 40s. 


1834 


Edwin Forrest, 






Long Island, 


Saddle, 


2m. 31is. 


IS39 


Dutchman, . . 






Beacon Course, 


Saddle, 


2m. 28s. 


1847 


Highland Maid, 






Long Island, 


Harness, 


2m. 27s. 


1849 


Lady Suffolk, . 






Cambridge, 


Saddle, 


2m. 26s. 


1855 


Pocahontas (pacei 


), 




Long Island, 


Wagon, 


2m. 17s. 


1858 


Ethan Allen, . 






Long Island, 


Wagon, 


2m. 28s. 


1859 


Flora Temple, . 






Kalamazoo, 


Harness, 


2m. 19|s. 


1859 


Flora Temple, . 






Long Island, 


Wagon, 


2m. 25s. 


1863 








Long Island, 


Wagon, 


2m. 23£s. 


1865 








Long Island, 


Saddle, 


2m. 18|s. 


1866 








Buffalo, 
Buffalo, 


Saddle, 
Harness, 


2 m. 18s. 


1867 






2m. 17^s. 


1S68 


Lady Thorn, . 






Boston, 


Harness, 


2m. 20 is. 


1868 


Mountain Boy, 






Boston, 


Harness, 


2m. 20|s. 


1868 


Bashaw, Jr. 






Clinton, Iowa, 


Harness, 


2m. 21s. 


1868 


Geo. Palmer, . 






Boston, 


Harness, 


2m. 214s. 


1868 


Geo. Wilkes, . 






Cranston, R. I., 


Harness, 


2m. 22s. 


1868 








Cranston, R. I. 


Harness 


2m. 22is. 
2m. 23s. 


1868 


Goldsmith Maid, 






Boston, 


Harness, 


186S 


Fearnought, 






Buffalo, 


Harness, 


2m. 23£s- 


1868 


Rhode Island, . 






Fashion Course, 


Harness, 


2m. 23is. 


1868 


Draco Prince, . 






Cranston, R. I., 


Harness, 


2m. 24£s. 


1868 


American Girl, 






Buffalo, 


Harness, 


2m. 24is. 


1868 


Myron Perry, . 






Cranston, R. I., 


Harness, 


2m. 25is. 


1868 


Tattler (5 yrs), 






Louisville, 


Harness, 


2m. 26s. 


1868 


Billy Boyce (pacer), 


Buffalo, 


Saddle, 


2m. 14Js. 


1868 


Lamplighter (pacer), 


Detroit, 


Harness, 


2m. 24|s. 


1868 


Rolla Golddust, . . 


Island Park, N.Y. 


Harness, 


2m. 21s. 



THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 505 

Two Miles. 



Year. 


Name of Ilorse. 


Place of Performance. 


Style of Going 


Time. 


1S31 
1847 
1852 
1858 
1859 
1865 
1867 


Top Gallant, . 
Lady Suffolk, . 

Lady Franklin, 
Flora Temple, . 






Philadelphia, 
Lt>ng Island, 
Long Island, 
1 Long Island, 
Long Island, 
Long Island, 
Long Island, 


Saddle, 

Saddle, 

Saddle, 

Wagon, 

Harness, 

Wagon, 

Harness, 


5m. 19|s. 
5m. 3s. 
5m. 2s. 
5m. lis. 
4m. 50Js. 
4m. 56Js. 
4m. 51s. 



Three Miles. 



Year. 


Name of Ilorse. 


Place of Performance. 


Style of Going. 


Time. 


1S27 


Screwdriver, . . . 


Philadelphia, 


Saddle, 


8m. 2s. 


1832 


Columbus, .... 


Long Island, 


Saddle, 


8m. 0s. 


1839 


Dutchman, .... 


Beacon Course, 


Saddle, 


7m. 32£s. 


1841 


Lady Suffolk, . . . 


Philadelphia, 


Saddle, 


7m. 4u|s. 


1S53 


Pet, 


Long Island, 


Wagon, 


8m. Is. 


1S64 


Stonewall Jackson, . 


Long Island, 


Harness, 


7m. 39s. 



One Mile in Double Harness. 



Lantern and Whalebone, 

Ethan Allan and running mate, 

Lady Palmer and Flatbush Maid (private trial), 

Bruno and Brunette, 

Ethan Allen and running mate, 



2m. 42s. 
2m. 19|s. 
2m. 26s. 
2m. 25is. 
2m. 15s. 



Two Miles in Double Harness. 



Lady Suffolk and Rifle, . . . 
Lady Palmer and Flatbush Maid, 



5m. 19s. 
5m. ljs. 



Twenty Miles. 



Year. 


Name of Horse. 


Place of Performance. 


Style of Going. 


Time. 


184S 
1855 
1865 
1868 
1868 


Lady Fulton, . . 
Capt. McGowan, 
John Stewart, . . . 
John Stewart, . . . 


Union Course, 
Centreville Course, 
Boston, 

Fashion Course, 
Boston, 


Harness, 
Harness, 
Harness, 
Harness, 
Wagon, 


59m. 35Js. 
59m. 55s. 
5Sm. 25s. 
58m. 30s. 
59m. 23s. 



■W 



506 



THE HORSE. 
Fifty Miles. 



1842 Black Joke, 



3h. 57m. 



One Hundred Miles. 



L840 
1842 
1845 
1853 



Kate, 

Fanny Murray, . . 
Fanny Jenks, . . . 
Orange County Horse, 



9b. 45m. 
9h. 41m. 26s. 
9h. 38m. 34s. 
8h. 55m. 53a. 



If these few pages, written hastily in hours snatched from a 
laborious profession, and from sleep, should inspire the reader 
with a higher respect for and more tender sympathy with man's 
most useful and willing servant, they have not been written in 
vain. 



Chester, Pa., February 1869. 




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(523) 



A HISTORY 



THE TURF AND THE TROTTING HORSE IN AMERICA. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by 

TICKNOR & FIELDS, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 



MM 










iS^Hi 



' ^^;(m : :: ^^1Wp " 



A HISTORY 



OP 



THE TURF AND THE TROTTING HORSE IN AMERICA. 

BY JOHN ELDERKIN, 

AUTHOR OF " HOW TO MAKE SLOW HORSES PAST," &C, &C. 
[From the Atlantic Monthly.] 



Nearly all the great trotting horses of America have come of 
one blood, — that of Messenger, an English horse, imported into 
New York in 1788. 

The lineage of this horse can be traced directly back to the 
Darley Arabian, who was the sire of Flying Childers ; and to the 
Cade mare, who was a granddaughter of the Godolphin Arabian. 
He was, therefore, of the best English thorough-bred racing stock. 

All accounts concur in representing Messenger as a horse of 
superb form, and extraordinary power and spirit. A groom who 
saw him taken off the ship which brought him to this country, 
was accustomed to relate that " the three other horses that accom- 
panied him on a long voyage had become so reduced and weak 
that they had to be helped and supported down the gang-plank ; 
but when it came Messenger's turn to land, he, with a loud neigh, 
charged down, with a negro on each side holding him back, and 
dashed off up the street on a stiff trot, carrying the negroes along, 
in spite of all their efforts to bring him to a stand-still." 

He was a handsome gray, fifteen and three-quarter hands high,* 
with "a large bony head, rather short, straight neck, with wind- 
pipe and nostrils nearly twice as large as ordinary ; low withers, 
shoulders somewhat upright, but deep and strong ; powerful loin 
and quarters; hocks and knees unusually large, and below them 



*A hand is four inches. 

(527) 



528 THE HORSE. 

limbs of medium size, but flat and clean, and, whether at rest or 
in motion, always in a perfect position. 

These records indicate that he had more of the form of the 
trotter than the thorough-bred horse in general. This form, along 
with the extraordinary vitality and endurance of his race, he gave 
to his progeny ; which being persistently used and trained to trot, 
became still more marked in these characteristic particulars. The 
first generation of his descendants were fine road horses, many of 
them fast, and all endowed with extraordinary courage and en- 
durance. The second and third generations possessed in still 
greater perfection the form and action of the trotting horse, of 
which the fourth generation has furnished the most perfect 
specimens. 

Messenger lived to be twenty-( ight years old. For fifteen years 
he was owned in the neighborhood of New York, and was held in 
such estimation that he probably left a more numerous family 
than any horse that has ever lived. So great has been the impress 
of his wonderful stamina and splendid form upon the horses of 
America, that those best acquainted with the subject do not 
hesitate to estimate his value to the country at one hundred 
millions of dollars. 

Of the other horses that have founded lines of trotters, Justin 
Morgan deserves to be mentioned first. He was foaled in 1793 at 
Springfield, Massachusetts, and when two years old was taken to 
Vermont. His sire was True Briton, a fine horse ridden by 
General Delancey in the Revolutionary war. 

Justin Morgan is described as a " low, compact, powerful horse, 
with a proud step, and good lively action." These qualities ke 
communicated to his descendants, who are smooth, easy travellers, 
and possessed of indomitable perseverance. Fox, one of his colts, 
was driven one hundred aud seventy-five miles on the road within 
twenty-four hours. The excellence of the stock of New England 
is due to this horse and to Hambletonian, a son of Messenger. 

The Bashaws are descended from two imported Arabian horses. 
The first, known as Bashaw, was bred by the Emperor of Mo- 
rocco, by whom he was presented to the Bey of Algiers, and 
finally, through the Swedish Consul, found his way to this country 
about the year 1768. 

Grand Bashaw was imported from Tripoli in 1820. Andrew 
Jackson, Kemble Jackson, Long Island, Black Hawk, Henry 
Clay, Lantern, and George M. Patchen are of his descendants, 
although all of them are more or less derived from Messenger. 
The Bashaws are characterized by fine size, handsome head and 
neck, full mane and tail, and a certain pride and magnificence of 
style. 

The trotting horse Bellfounder was imported from England in 



THE TURF AND THE TROTTING HORSE. 529 

1823. He was a horse of great substance, of remarkable spirit, 
and his career in England was marked by splendid achievements. 
At three years old he trotted two miles in six minutes ; and when 
four years old, ten miles in thirty minutes. Afterwards he trotted 
over the Norfolk Course, seventeen and one-half miles, within an 
hour, winning a purse of five hundred guineas. He gave muscle 
and sinew to his progeny, and a Bellfounder cross appears in the 
pedigrees of many fine trotting horses. 

There remain to be mentioned imported Trustee, and Sir 
Henry; Duroc, by thorough-bred Diomed; Glencoe, by Sultan; 
and the French horses Pilot and Royal George. These last horses 
were only in part of the original Norman stock ; but they had 
enough of the blood to show it in their form, in the toughness of 
their constitution, and in their bold trotting action. 

From the horses that have been here enumerated, all the 
trotting horses and most of the road horses in the United States 
have come. In the case of many trotting horses a pedigree cannot 
be made out; but whenever one is fully ascertained, it invariably 
establishes a connection with one or the other of them. An 
excellent authority claims that no great trotter has been produced 
whose pedigree, when traced for four generations, does not show 
a connection with imported Messenger. 

This record proves the immense influence of a few good horses 
upon the stock of a nation, and attests also the superior qualities 
of the English racer. All the horses here mentioned are of the 
Arabian and English thorough-bred stock, except the French 
horses, and even they are known to have had a strong infusion of 
the blood. From the vast hordes of wild horses which roamed 
over the plains of Texas, Mexico, and South America, not a single 
animal equal in size, speed, and enduring power to these English 
horses and their direct descendants has ever been bred. 

The first public trotting race in America, of which there is any 
record, took place in the year 1818. There had been for many 
years previous a growing taste for driving the trotting horse, and 
racing or running had been popular from the first settlement of 
the country ; but it was not until that comparatively recent date 
that the interest in trotting culminated in a public exhibition of it. 

The love of the horse is a part of the birthright of Americans, 
as the offspring of a people who for centuries have been devoted 
to the sports of the turf, and whose patriotism and pride have 
co-operated with their love of pleasure in the cultivation and 
improvement of a national stock. As early as the twelfth century 
a regular race-course was established in London ; this being none 
other than Smithfield. Fitzstephen, who lived at that period, 
gives the following quaint account of the contests between the 
palfreys of the day : " When a race is to be run by horses which 
45 2l 



.)30 THE HORSE. 

in their kind are strong and fleet, a shout is raised, and common 
horses are ordered to withdraw from without the way. Two 
jockeys, then, or sometimes three, as the match may be made, 
prepare themselves for the contest, — such as are used to ride, and 
know how to manage their horses with judgment; the grand point 
being to prevent a competitor from getting before them. The 
horses on their part are not without emulation. They tremble, 
and are impatient, and continually in motion. At last, the signal 
once given, they hurry along with unremitting velocity; the 
jockeys, inspired with the thoughts of applause and the hopes of 
victory, clapping spurs to their willing steeds, brandishing their 
whips, and cheering them with their cries." Youatt adds, that 
this description, with the exception of the cries, might form part 
of the record of a modern race at Epsom, in the columns of a morn- 
ing paper, — so national is the English sport of horse-racing, and 
so unchanged are its characteristics. The history of the English 
horse and turf is full of interest. Such was the importance that 
Edward III. attached to good stock, that he gave a thousand 
marks for fifty Spanish horses, negotiating at the same time with 
the kings of France and Spain for their safe passage by land. The 
Stuarts imported many fine horses from the East, and laid the 
basis of the modern thorough-bred stock. Since their time it has 
been considered obligatory upon royalty to encourage breeding 
and racing, and even Parliament adjourns in honor of the Derby. 
As a recent writer in an English magazine says : " It is an 
undoubted necessity that Englishmen should have a national 
pastime, capable of affording amusement to all classes, enacted in 
the open air, devoid of all taint of cruelty, and conducted, as far 
as possible, with the rules of fair play. That want racing supplies ; 
and when the national amusements of other times and peoples are 
reviewed, it will be found a difficult task to dispute, successfully, 
the claim that the English turf is the noblest pastime in which 
any nation, ancient or modern, has ever indulged." 

The love of the national sport was strongly implanted in the 
breasts of those Englishmen who settled Virginia and other 
southern and southwestern portions of the United States. They 
imported the best English horses, and the time early came when 
every planter kept his stud. As the country was sparsely settled, 
and wagon-roads uncut, the horse and saddle furnished the prin- 
cipal means of communication with neighbors and towns, and to 
be well mounted became one of the distinguishing marks of social 
position. The stage-coach came afterward, and the railroad; and 
travelling on horseback gradually ceased, but not until the taste 
for using the horse under the saddle had become thoroughly 
established, and yearly meetings for racing in the English style 
had become popular. 



THE TURF AND THE TROTTING HORSE. 531 

Passing over colonial times, and the period immediately follow- 
ing the Revolution, we come upon the period when racing reached 
the highest point of popularity. For a period of over twenty-five 
years every city and considerable town, from New York to Florida, 
from Cairo to Balize, and all through the valley of the Mississippi, 
had biennial meetings, in which the most distinguished men of the 
time took part. The leading politicians of the South were fore- 
most in patronizing the turf. The efforts of General Jackson to 
improve the stock of Kentucky, and his fondness for racing, are 
fully set forth in his biography by Mr. Parton. The names of 
Sir Henry, American Eclipse, Ariel, Black Maria, Gray Eagle, 
Boston, and Fashion will render this period in American turf- 
annals for ever illustrious. 

But racing had its origin in the Southern States. Virginia and 
Kentucky were the great nurseries of the running horse. The 
principal race-courses were near Southern capitals ; and although, 
in the great race on Union Course, Long Island, in 1823, between 
Sir Henry and American Eclipse, the North was successful, in 
the main the greatest success in breeding running horses, as well 
as the greatest popularity of the sport, was at the South. 

If the English love of the horse was shared by the Puritan 
settlers of New England at all, it did not show itself in patronage 
of the turf. On the contrary, they regarded racing and all its 
accompaniments with peculiar aversion. Their creed and lives, 
indeed their very expatriation, formed a protest against the habits 
and principles of those of their countrymen at home with whom 
the maintenance of the turf was the first object of life. Nor was 
the exhilarating ride in the saddle in harmony with the Puritan 
temper. It was tainted with incitements whose direct tendency 
was the race-course. Their settlements covered a narrower field, 
and consequently there was not the same demand for the horse 
for use in travelling as at the South. It was as an assistant in 
the labors of agriculture that they found him principally service- 
able. His decorous use before the rude vehicles which carried 
their families to meeting was the nearest approach which they 
made to modern pleasure-driving. Harnessed before their " one- 
horse shays/' a horse possessing the speed of Flora Temple or 
Dexter, would be brought down to an orthodox amble. Thus it 
came that driving the horse before vehicles of varying degrees of 
clumsiness generally prevailed in New England ; whence it has 
gradually spread over the country, displacing the use of the horse 
under the saddle, and furnishing another evidence of the complete 
predominance of Puritan influence in the country. The habit of 
driving led naturally to the cultivation of trotting; that gait being 
the easiest for the horse in harness, and the most unobtrusive and 
agreeable to the driver. 



532 THE HORSE. 

There exists but a scanty record of the early trotting horses and 
their achievements. The first sporting-paper published in Ame- 
rica, "The Turf Kegister," was first issued September 1, 1829. 
This monthly journal was almost entirely devoted to the thorough- 
bred running horse and racing; and, during the first two or three 
years of its existence, trotting was barely mentioned in its pages. 
As has been stated, the first public trotting race took place in 
1818. In that year the horse Boston Blue trotted at Boston, in 
a match against time, a mile within three minutes (the exact time 
is Unknown), which was reckoned a very great performance. In 
1824 Albany Pony trotted a mile on the Jamaica turnpike in 2 m. 
40 s., which shows a considerable advance in speed in the six 
years which had intervened. 

The performances of Top Gallant were so extraordinary, and he 
was in every respect such a superior horse, that a more complete 
record of him has been handed down than of any of the old-time 
trotters. He was foaled in 1808, but trotted his principal races 
after he was twenty years old. Hiram Woodruff, who rode him 
at his exercise, thus describes him : " Top Gallant was a dark bay, 
fifteen hands three inches high ; plain and raw-boned ; but with 
rather a fine head and neck, and an eye expressive of much 
courage. His spirit was very high, and his bottom was of the 
finest and toughest quality." In 1828, in a four-mile race against 
Whalebone over the Hunting Park Course, Philadelphia, he 
trotted four heats* of four miles each, in 11 m. 16 s., 11 m. 6 s., 
11 m. 17 s., 12 m. 15 s., the whole sixteen miles in 45 m. 44 s. 
In 1830, when twenty-two years old, he trotted twelve miles over 
the same course in 38 minutes j and in 1831, on the same ground, 
two miles in 5 m. 19 s. 

A correspondent of the " English Sporting Magazine," writing 
of the trotting horses at the Hunting Park Course in 1829, men- 
tions Top Gallant first, as follows : 

" Top Gallant, by Hambletonian, he by Messenger, trotted twelve 
miles in harness in 38 minutes; and three miles, under saddle, in 
8 m. 31 s. He is now nineteen years old, and can trot a mile with 
one hundred and fifty pounds in 2 m. 45 s. 

" Betsey Baker, by Mambrino, he by Messenger, beat Top Gal- 
lant three miles, under saddle, carrying one hundred and fifty 
pounds, in 8 m. 16 s. This mare, when sound, could trot twenty 
miles within the hour. 

" Trouble, by Hambletonian, a horse of good bottom, trotted two 
miles in 5 m. 25 s. 

" Sir Peter, by Hambletonian, trotted three miles in harness in 
8 m. 16 s. 

* A heat is one continuous effort, either in running or trotting. 



THE TURF AND THE TROTTING HORSE. 533 

" Wh tlebone, by Hambletonian, trotted three miles in 8 m. 18 s. 
These two, Sir Peter and Whalebone, can be matched either against 
Battler or Tom Thumb, now in England, for any amount." 

(Tom Thumb trotted, in England, 16.5 miles, in harness, in 56 
m. 45 s., and 100 miles in 9 h. 30 m.) 

" Screwdriver, by Mount Holly, he by Messenger, in a race with 
Betsey Baker, trotted two three-mile heats in 8 m. 2 s., and 8 m. 
10 s." 

This record of performances would be creditable to the trotting 
horse in any year of his history. It illustrates the general char- 
acter of all the trotting races of the early time. They were as 
much a test of endurance as of speed, and were seldom of less 
than two, and frequently of three and four miles. Races were 
trotted in which the endurance of horses was taxed to the utter- 
most, and the tasks most commonly imposed would render com- 
pletely worthless one-half of the trotting horses of the present 
day. Speed has been cultivated to the neglect of bottom, and 
what has been gained in swiftness has been lost in staying power. 

In this respect, the course of trotting in America is analogous 
to that of racing in England. The English racers of half a cen- 
tury ago partook of the characteristic excellence of the Oriental 
horses, from whom they were derived, — which was that, in addi- 
tion to their speed, they possessed extraordinary powers of endur- 
ance. Such horses as Bay Middleton, Grlencoe, Mameluke, The 
Baron, Pyrrhus the First, Blair Athol, Wild Dayrell, Lanercost, 
and Harkaway, and the mares Catherina, Beeswing, and Alice 
Hawthorn, are not now found upon the English turf, and it is doubt- 
ful if ever they will be found there again. An English writer on 
the present condition of the turf says : " There is not a six-year- 
old now in training in England to whom any of these four (Laner- 
cost, Harkaway, Beeswing, and Alice Hawthorn) could not at the 
same age have given a stone and a beating over the Beacon 
Course." 

The " Turf Register" of March, 1834, copies from a Philadel- 
phia paper the following comments on a race which took place at 
Trenton, N. J., in which the horse Edwin Forrest trotted a mile 
in 2 m. 36 s., and Columbus, in 2 m. 37 s. : " The improvement 
of the trotting horse is engaging the attention of some of the best 
sporting characters in the country. We believe our state boasts 
of the best trotters in the Union. New York is nearly as good as 
our own. It is, in our opinion, a sport which should be encou- 
raged." 

The horses Edwin Forrest and Columbus were the best trotting 

horses of their time. The first trotted on Long Island, in 1834, 

a mile in 2 m. 31 J s., which was then the best time ever made. 

He was afterward beaten by Daniel D. Tompkins, a New England 

45* 



534 THE HORSE. 

horse, in a great race for ten thousand dollars. Columbus was 
the first horse to trot three miles in less than eight minutes. 

The celebrated horse Dutchman made his appearance on the 
turf in 1833. His pedigree was never ascertained. In his work 
on the trotting horse, Hiram Woodruff says of him : " For the 
combined excellences of speed, bottom, and constitutional vigor, 
equal to the carrying on of a long campaign and improving on it, 
Dutchman has had few, if any equals, and certainly no superior." 
In 1836 he was entered in sweepstakes with Fanny Pullen and 
Confidence. Fanny Pullen was the dam of Trustee, the first horse 
to trot twenty miles within an hour. Confidence was a handsome 
bay horse, afterwards purchased for the well-known English 
horseman, Mr. Osbaldestone, and taken out of the country. 
Dutchman won the race in 5 m. 17$ s., and 5 m. 18 J s. He 
afterwards beat Lady Suffolk in two straight two-mile heats in 5 
m. 11 s., and 5 m. 13 s. His race with Ratler, a horse that Hiram 
Woodruff declared to be the best trotter ever taken to England, 
was one of the most closely contested and best three-mile races 
ever trotted. For eleven miles the horses were never clear of each 
other; and when Dutchman left Ratler in the twelfth, it was by 
inches only. In 1839, on the Beacon Course, New Jersey, Dutch- 
man made his great and imperishable record of three miles in 7 
m. 32£ s. He trotted one mile of this race in 2 m. 28 s., which 
was the best one-mile time that had then been made, as the three- 
mile time is the best made up to the present writing. 

Long Island, the scene of so many of the triumphs of the 
trotting horse, is equally distinguished as the birth-place of some 
of the most celebrated. Messenger was kept at its western ex- 
tremity, and his blood was disseminated over the whole island. 
From one of his descendants, Engineer, came Lady Suffolk, for 
many years the unquestioned mistress of the trotting-turf. She 
was bred in Suffolk county, whence her name, and when three 
years old was purchased by David Bryant, from the farmer who 
raised her, for ninety dollars. She was a gray, raw-boned, slab- 
sided, homely animal ; but deep in the chest and muscular in the 
arms and quarters, which enabled her to keep up a wonderfully 
long and clearing stride. Her first appearance on the turf was in 
1838, when she was five years old. From that time she was kept 
steadily at work for sixteen years, trotting one hundred and sixty- 
one races, of which she won eighty-eight. Her owner, though 
devotedly attached to her, did not use the discretion in her 
management which is necessary to secure success, even with the 
most reliable animals; so, despite her extraordinary speed and 
bottom, the list of her defeats is nearly as long as that of her 
victories. She was beaten by Dutchman, Repton, Lady Victory, 
Lafayette, Independence, Aaron Burr, and by Americus in a 



THE TURF AND THE TROTTING HORSE. 535 

great five-mile race which came off on the Centreville Course 
in the fall of 1841. That same year she beat Dutchman on the 
Hunting Park Course, Philadelphia, trotting three miles in 7 m. 
40 £ s. The year before, the same horse had beaten her easily in 
7 m. 51 s. She had steadily improved from the time of her first 
appearance, although she had been driven in races of two and 
three miles every season, until it was a cause of surprise that her 
legs were strong enough to bear her up at all. Anything of less 
steel-like fibre would have given way, and the trotting-turf been 
deprived of one of its greatest ornaments. 

In 1842 she beat Ripton in a two-mile race, in harness, in 5 m. 
10 s., and 5 m. 15 s. This was on the 7th of May. On the 1st 
of August Ripton turned the tables by beating her in 5 m. 6 s., and 
5 m. 22 s. This Ripton was a handsome bay, small, but a trotter 
of peculiar smoothness and beauty. He had many contests with 
Lady Suffolk, and the record shows that he beat her oftener than 
he was beaten. Even as late as this year, 1842, most of the races 
were of two and three miles, and in all such races it is important 
to husband the power of the horse as much as possible; conse- 
quently the full speed is very seldom called out, but a gait is 
aimed at which can be maintained to the end of a long race. For 
this reason, horses of moderate speed and great endurance may 
beat, in such races, far faster trotters. Although Lady Suffolk 
had the hardiest bottom and highest courage, she was a long 
strider, and calculated to put forth all her strength in a great 
effort, rather than expend it gradually in a moderate effort long 
continued. In spite of this, such was her enduring power, that, 
in 1837, she distanced the pacer James K. Polk, the first heat of 
a two-mile race in 5 m. 3 s. But her greatest performance was 
in the season of 1849. Hiram Woodruff says : " This arduous 
season began at the Union Course on the 21st of May. Lady 
Suffolk and Lady Moscow trotted mile heats, Moscow winning in 
four heats. Lady Suffolk then went Down East, and trotted three 
races at Providence, Rhode Island. From there she went to 
Boston, and on the 14th of June she trotted on the Cambridge 
Course with Mac, on which occasion she made the fastest heat 
she ever trotted. The first heat was won by Mac in 2 m. 31 s. 
The Lady won the second in 2 m. 26 s." This was her greatest 
performance. It raised her to the highest place among trotting 
horses, and gave her a world-wide fame, which has endured to the 
present day. She afterwards trotted with Jack Rossiter, Lady 
Sutton, Trustee, Long Island Black Hawk, Gray Trouble, and Gray 
Eagle, — all horses of the very first class, — and remained on the 
turf until 1853, doing an immense amount of work every season, 
maintaining her great reputation both for speed and endurance 
until she passed into hone* ible retirement. 



536 THE HORSE. 

Long Island Black Hawk was one of the greatest stock-horses 
ever bred upon the island which furnished the first half of his 
name, and one of the best representatives of the Bashaw family. 
He was fifteen and a half hands in height, finely moulded, a great 
weight-puller, and a good traveller. He was hardly a match for 
Lady Suffolk, who drew three hundred and fifty pounds, and beat 
him in 2 m. 40 s. 

Kemble Jackson, another son of Andrew Jackson, was equally 
distinguished. As a trotter, he surpassed Long Island Black 
Hawk. He commenced his career on the Centreville Course in 
December, 1850. The next year he beat the Nelson Colt in a 
three-mile race, giving a strong proof of his great qualities. On 
the 1st of June, 1853, in a similar race with O'Blenis, Boston 
Girl, Pet, Iola, and Honest John, he achieved a national reputa- 
tion. This race attracted almost as much attention as the great 
race between Sir Henry and American Eclipse, in which the 
honor of two sections of the country, the North and the South, 
was considered at stake. The contest was mainly between the 
popular favorites Kemble Jackson and O'Blenis. The latter was 
by Abdallah, from whom he inherited all the fine characteristics 
of the Messenger stock. Kemble Jackson was driven by Hiram 
Woodruff, whose skill and judgment in driving were signally dis- 
played in the management of his horse on this occasion. All the 
horses came on the ground in good condition, and were well 
started for the first trial. The popular judgment was immediately 
confirmed by Kemble Jackson and O'Blenis drawing ahead of the 
others, — Kemble Jackson on the lead, which he maintained for 
three miles, winning the first heat in 8 m. 8 s. In the second 
heat, Iola and Pet got off with the lead, but on the second quarter 
Kemble Jackson headed them, and O'Blenis coming up, a duel 
between them was maintained until the end of the second mile ; 
Kemble Jackson, leading easily in the third mile, won the heat 
and the race in 8 m. 4f s. All the horses did well, but Kemble 
Jackson surpassed all expectation ; and though the time has been 
frequently beaten, this is generally considered one of the best 
three-mile races ever witnessed on Long Island. 

Lady Suffolk's day was hardly over before a successor appeared 
who was more than her equal, whose career on the turf was 
nearly as long, and marked by achievements exciting equal admi- 
ration, and gaining her even greater celebrity. The new light 
was Flora Temple. She was foaled in 1845, near Utica, New 
York, and was by One-eyed Hunter, z son of Kentucky Hunter. 
She was a little bay mare, fourteen and a half hands high, of 
thorough -bred, muscular form, and peculiarly quick and nervous 
gait. When four years old she was sold for thirteen dollars, and 
again for sixty-eight dollars, and ultimately found her way to New 



THE TURF AND THE TROTTING HORSE. 537 

York, where she soon became known on the suburban rjads as a 
trotter of unusual promise. In the summer of 1850 she trotted 
her first race, a half mile, on the old Red-House track. In the 
fall of the same year she trotted with Delaware Maid, Whitehall, 
Napoleon, and Hiram, winning in 2 m % . 55 s., 2 m. 52 s., and 
2 m. 49 s. 

In 1852 she beat the horse Centreville in 2 m. 42 s., and this 
year she was sold again ; the price paid was four thousand dollars. 
In 1853 she beat Black Douglas, who had previously beaten her 
on the Hunting Park Course, Philadelphia. In this race she 
trotted a mile in 2 m. 31£ s. Her races with Highland Maid 
took place the same season. This mare was bred in Orange 
county, New York, and was of the purest Messenger blood. She 
was very powerful, and a great strider, and was then, like Flora 
Temple, in the first flush of what promised to be a brilliant career. 
Their first race was in harness, and came off on the Centreville 
(Long Island) Course, on the 15th of June, 1853. Highland 
Maid won the first heat in 2 m. 29 s., and the second in 2 m. 
27 s., which last was the best time that had then been made in 
harness. Flora Temple had pushed her antagonist to the top of 
her speed, and the great strain had told upon her. In the third 
heat she gave out, and was distanced in 2 m. 32$ s. The next 
race between them was to wagons, and took place on the 28th of 
the same month. In the first heat Flora Temple got the lead, and 
maintained it, winning in 2 m. 28 s. The next heat was won by 
Highland Maid in 2 m. 32 s. The third heat was severely con- 
tested, and was declared a dead heat. The fourth was won by 
Highland Maid in 2 m. 33 s. But in the fifth and sixth Flora 
Temple showed her superior power to repeat by beating her rival 
in 2 m. 31 $ s. and 2 m. 35 s. This was a very severe race, and 
Highland Maid, not being thoroughly matured and seasoned, did 
not recover from it for a long time. It raised Flora Temple to 
the rank of the first trotting horses of the country. 

The next month she trotted with Tacony. This horse was bred 
in Canada, and had trotted under the saddle in 2 m. 25$ s. The 
race was in harness, and was won by Tacony in three desperately 
contested heats, the time being 2 m. 28 s., 2 m. 27 s., 2 m. 29 s. 
The horses were immediately matched to trot again two-mile heats 
in harness, the race to come off in five days. Flora Temple won 
easily in 4 m. 59 s., and 5 m. 1 s. On the 26th of July she beat 
Tacony again at Saratoga; and afterwards, in 1856, distanced him 
in 2 m. 24$ s., effectually establishing her superiority. 

In 1854 Flora Temple beat Lady Brooks in four heats, and 
Kemble Jackson in five heats, to wagons. The victory over this 
veteran was only one after a terrific struggle. It seemed hard for 
the victor over so many courses to lay all his laurels at the feet 



538 THE HORSE. 

of a youthful rival. In November she beat Green Mountain 
Maid and Rhode Island at Rochester. After her return to New 
York she trotted with Mac, an old antagonist of Lady Suffolk. 
She beat hiui easily in 2 m. 31| s., 2 m. 32 s., and 2 m. 33 s. 

Not long after this race, Flora Temple became the property of 
James McMann, who henceforth drove her in her principal races, 
and with whom she is chiefly associated. Her first appearance 
after this change of ownership was in a race with Sontag. This 
mare was by Vermont Hambletonian, a grandson of Messenger, 
and a sire of many famous trotting horses. In this race Flora 
Temple was driven by Warren Peabody (Hiram Woodruff had 
driven her in most of her previous races), and was beaten by Son- 
tag in 2 m. 31 s., 2 m. 33 s., and 2 m. 35 s. The loss of this 
race would seem to be owing to the change of drivers, as the best 
time made had been repeatedly beaten by Flora Temple on pre- 
vious occasions. She was now matched to trot twenty miles within 
an hour, but was withdrawn after trotting twelve miles. Like 
Lady Suffolk, she does not appear to have been constituted for the 
dragging effort which is required for success in such races. 

It was in October of the year 1856 that Flora Temple and the 
great Morgan horse, Ethan Allen, trotted their first race. Ethan 
Allen may well be the pride of New England, for a finer built and 
more beautiful trotter was never harnessed. He had just beaten 
Rose of Washington and Hiram Drew ; and this, with his easy and 
perfect trotting gait, made many regard him as fully a match for 
the pet of Long Island. The race came off on the 5th of Novem- 
ber, and was won by Flora in two heats in 2 m. 32 £ s., and 2 m. 
36| s. It proved that Ethan Allen had hardly arrived at the 
period of development, or become sufficiently seasoned upon the 
turf, to compete with its mature and experienced mistress. 

Her first match in 1857 was with Rose of Washington. This 
Messenger mare was bred by that veteran horseman, Smith Burr, 
of Comae, Long Island, and was a full sister of Lady Woodruff 
Although she had been beaten by Ethan Allen when four years 
old, she was now fully matured and in prime condition for the race. 
Flora, on the contrary, had only shortly returned from her winter 
quarters, and had not had the work necessary to put her in condi- 
tion to trot with a rival who had beaten Tacony in 2 m. 30 s. and 
2 m. 31 s. that same season. In addition, it was stipulated that 
Flora should draw a wagon, Rose of Washington going in har- 
ness.* The result was that Flora was beaten in three straight 
heats. Another race between these two mares took place two 

* A horse is held by the best judges to be able to trot under the saddle 
three seconds faster than in harness, — that is, harnessed to a sulky, — and 
six seconds faster than when harnessed to a wagon. 



THE TURF AND THE TROTTING HORSE. 539 

WfceKS afterwards, with a different result. Flora, in the mean 
time, had trotted with the Belle of Portland, and had been worked 
into trotting condition, and in this race distanced Rose of Wash- 
ington in the first heat. The time, however, was not so good by 
one quarter of a second as the time made in the previous race ; aud 
had it not been for the early death of Rose of Washington she 
might have eclipsed her victorious rival. 

After these races, Flora travelled about the country, trotting for 
purses at various places, with Miller's Damsel, Redbird, Lancet, 
and Brown Dick. In 1858 she was sold to Mr. William McDonald 
of Baltimore for eight thousand dollars. The change of owner- 
ship made no difference in her trotting appointments, all of which 
continued to be made by James McMann. She trotted with 
Lancet at Philadelphia on the 8th of June, and at Baltimore on 
the 8th of July. In October she went West, aud trotted at De- 
troit, Chicago, St. Louis, and other places. Among her antago- 
nists in these races were Hero the pacer, Prince, and Reindeer. 

But it was not until 1859 that Flora Temple made the time 
which raised her to the high position which she holds among later 
trotting horses. She began the season that year by beating Ethan 
Allen in 2 m. 25 s. Her races with Princess followed. Princess 
was a very beautiful trotter. She was bred in New Hampshire; 
but had been in California, where she had trotted ten miles to 
wagon in 29 m. 10£ s. The first race between Flora and Princess 
was one of three miles, and was won by the former, alter a hard pull, 
in 7 m. 54 s. and 7 m. 59 J s. The second race of two miles was 
won by Princess in 5 m. 2 s. and 5 m. 5 s. The third race of one 
mile was won by Flora in 2 m. 23£ s., 2 m. 22 s., and 2 m. 23 % s. 
Although this most extraordinary race was won by Flora, Princess 
had trotted so well that it was still thought by some that she was 
the better horse. In August a fourth race of two miles took place 
between them, which was won by Flora in the unprecedented time 
of 4 m. 50J s. The time of the second heat was 5 m. 5 s. The 
two mares then made a trip together, trotting at Saratoga, Boston, 
Philadelphia, Baltimore, Chicago, and, on the 15th of October, at 
Kalamazoo, Mich. In the third heat of the race at this place, 
with Princess and Honest Anse, Flora trotted a mile in 2 m. 19| s. 
The news of this great performance was received by telegraph in 
the principal cities of the Union, and created a general excitement. 
It was the culmination of a long and brilliant career. I lora Tem- 
ple became thenceforth an object of public interest, and wherever 
she went was regarded with the greatest curiosity and favor. 
Before she returned to New York, she visited Cleveland, and St. 
Catharine's, Canada, winning races at both places. 

Flora was now fifteen years old. She had been on the turf for 
ten years, during whic'jt time she had trotted over fifty successful 



540 THE HORSE. 

races, and won thousands of dollars. It would seem that she had 
fairly earned a release. But such was not the fate in store for her. 
Another great horse had made his appearance, with whom she was 
destined to fight her old battles over again. This was George M. 
Patchen. He was bred in New Jersey, and was of Bashaw, Mes- 
senger, and Trustee lineage. He had been beaten once by Ethan 
Allen, but had beaten Brown Dick and Lancet, and trotted under 
the saddle in 2 m. 25} s. He was a large, powerful horse, and 
every way worthy of his reputation as a trotter. His first race 
with Flora took place on the 21st of November, 1859. Flora won 
the first heat in 2 m. 23 s., the second in 2 m. 24 s., and the third 
in 2 m. 24 s. ; but this heat, because of some irregularity, was 
given to Patchen by the judges. The race was then postponed, 
on account of darkness, until the following day, but was never 
finished. 

The second race between them took place on the 6th of June, 
1860, and was won by Flora in 2 m. 21 s., 2 m. 24 s., and 2 m. 
21$ s. Hiram Woodruff" pronounces this the best of Flora's races, 
and the horse that pushed her in it could not be other than very 
nearly as good as herself. They afterwards trotted a number of 
races at different places, in which Flora maintained her place at 
the head of the trotting horses of the country. 

In 1861 a new rival came from the West, to put the undecayed 
powers of this wonderful mare to one more trial. This horse had 
been known as Medoc, but was now called John Morgan. He was 
by Pilot, Jr., deriving Messenger blood from his dam. He was a 
very strong horse, and of great courage and endurance as well as 
speed. He was matched to trot three races with Flora; the first 
of one mile, the second of two miles, and the third of three miles. 
In all he was beaten ; but in the second race he proved himself 
worthy to rank with the very best horses that had ever been pitted 
against Flora. In this race he pushed her at every step, and the 
two heats were the best ever trotted in one race ; the time being 
4 m. 55 s. and 4 m. 52$ s. 

Flora's races with Ethan Allen and running mate remain to be 
mentioned. In these she was beaten, but they are not to be con- 
sidered in any fair estimate of the powers of the two horses. A 
horse trotting with a running mate is not only relieved of the whole 
weight of wagon and driver, but is absolutely helped along. In 
these races Flora showed undiminished speed and endurance, and 
in the last heat of the last race was only beaten by the team by a 
length, in her own best time, 2 m. 19f s. She was now withdrawn 
from the turf, and has never since made her appearance in a public 
race. 

In this sketch of the career of Flora Temple, in which the 
interesting " Reminiscences of the Trotting Horse, by Hiram 



THE TURF AND THE TROTTING HORSE. 541 

Woodruff," published in the " Spirit of the Times," have been 
consulted, most of the first trotting horses of the country, of the 
twelve years of her life on the turf, have been noticed. During 
the period of her ascendancy there was a great development of 
the taste for trotting, and the number of trotting horsea had con- 
stantly increased. During the past five years that taste has 
become still more marked, and diffused over the whole country. 
The number of trotting-courses has multiplied until nearly every 
town of three thousand inhabitants is supplied with one. The 
attention of farmers is largely given to breeding trotters ; and the 
amount of money, care, and intelligence bestowed upon that one 
branch of rural economy is almost incredible. In one county in 
the state of New York — Orange county, on the Hudson — there 
are millions of dollars invested in trotting stock farms. At the 
Stony Ford establishment alone there are one hundred and twenty- 
five horses of the Messenger blood. So many fast trotters have 
consequently been produced since 1861, that it is possible, within 
the limits of this article, to mention only the most celebrated. 

The fast noticeable race of the year 1862 was that of Lady 
Emma and Jilt, on Long Island. Lady Emma was a grand- 
daughter of Abdallah, and every way worthy of her descent from 
that patriarch of trotters. In the race with Jilt she made the 
following surpassing record, — 2 m. 28} s., 2 m. 29} s., 2 m. 30 s., 
2 m. 31 s. This was followed by the race between two great 
horses, Ethan Allen and Robert Fillingham, or George Wilkes, 
as he is now called. The latter is by the celebrated Messenger 
horse Hambletonian of Chester, — with one exception the only son 
of Abdallah living, and the sire of more great trotting horses than 
any horse that has ever lived in America. George Wilkes has 
all the characteristics of the Hambletonian stock, — fine size, great 
muscular development, smooth long stride, and superior endurance. 
He beat Ethan Allen in three straight heats, in 2 m. 24f s., 2 m. 
25| s., and 2 m. 31 s. 

In October of the same year the first race between the horses 
General Butler and Rockingham was trotted, to wagons, on the 
Fashion Course, Long Island. General Butler is a very remark- 
able horse. He developed slowly, and came to his great speed 
only after long and careful training. He has shown lasting powers 
equal to those of old Top Gallant. Rockingham was bred in 
Massachusetts, where he was known as the Granger colt. He 
was a large, flea-bitten gray horse, of very stylish appearance, and 
a great trotter. In this race five heats were trotted, — Rocking- 
ham winning the first two, in 2 m. 30} s. and 2 m. 29} s. ; and 
General Butler the last three, in 2 m. 28 s., 2 m. 27 s., and 2 m. 
30 s. The second ^nd third of their races were both won by 
46 



542 THE HORSE. 

Rockingham, in the third of which he trotted a mile under the 
saddle in 2 m. 22 is. 

The famous feat of the " Ledger team," Lady Palmer and 
Flatbush Maid, also took place in the season of this year, 1862, 
on the Fashion Course, Long Island, on the day of the race be- 
tween the black mare Sunnyside and Gray Eddy. As Sunnyside 
was a new-comer of great pretension, a large concourse of people 
had assembled to witness her first performance. After the race 
was over, it was whispered that Mr. Bonner would give his mares 
a trial of one mile ; and his appearance on the course in his road 
wagon, driving the well-known beauties, detained the whole 
assembled multitude. The reason of this public exhibition of the 
speed of a pair of horses kept strictly for private amusement by a 
gentleman strongly opposed to betting, and all the demoralizing 
accessories of the turf, was known to many upon the grounds, and 
tended to intensify their interest. A few years before Mr. Bonner 
had taken up driving for his health. On the roads about the 
city, among others he met Commodore Vanderbilt, the great 
steamship owner, who has for many years been known as an inde- 
fatigable roadite and horseman. They were accustomed to meet 
at what is known as the Club House on Harlem Lane, where easy 
and pleasant social intercourse, enlivened by an occasional brush 
between some of the first-class horses that were daily assembled 
there, made such meetings exceedingly agreeable. On one of 
these occasions some badinage took place between Commodore 
Vanderbilt and Mr. Bonner as to the speed of their respective 
teams, that resulted in a lasting rivalry. Mr. George Wilkes, 
writing of this rivalry, says : " It was a fair contest. Commodore 
Vanderbilt was worth eight or nine millions of dollars, and Mr. 
Bonner had an income of considerably more than one hundred 
thousand a year. Every one, therefore, looked on with pleasure 
at this rivalry, and the efforts each gentleman made to secure 
pre-eminence made the contest conspicuous to all lookers-on." 
The efforts here referred to were efforts to obtain the fastest 
horses in the market. As Mr. Bonner would not accept a bet of 
ten thousand dollars, he offered the Commodore the alternative 
of competing in a friendly way, should he see fit, with the time 
that he should make with his horses in a public trial. On the 
day in question the Commodore was on the course, and, by re- 
quest, held a watch upon the horses, and took note of the time 
made. 

When Mr. Bonner brought out his team there was a murmur 
of admiration. The horses were well matched, of the finest mould, 
full of life and elastic vigor, and moved together as if they obeyed 
a single impulse. Lady Palmer is a dark chestnut Glencoe mare, 
of fine thorough-bred appearance, but has bone and muscle in 



THE TURF AND THE TROTTING HORSE. 543 

abundance, where bone and muscle are needed in trotting. Flat- 
bush Maid is of the same height, but of heavier build. She has 
the compact and solid form and vigorous action, which indicate 
ability to carry weight and trot a long race. In the preliminary 
skirmishes, previous to starting, it became apparent that both 
were in the best condition for the trial. Mr. Bonner now gave 
them a turn around the course, gradually increasing the rate of 
speed, and passed over the score for the trial at a flying gait. The 
quarter pole was passed in 38 £ seconds, and, urged on to their 
utmost endeavor, the team increased the pace, and crossed the 
score in 2 ni. 32£ s. But Mr. Bonner did not stop them at the 
end of the first mile. He pushed straight forward for the second 
mile, rightly estimating that in the first half of the first mile they 
had not been quite up to the mark. But they were now fully 
down to the work. They moved with the steadiness of a locomo- 
tive, and as they came upon the home-stretch, they appeared to 
put forth all their strength. The eyes of thousands were upon 
them as they came flying on ; and as they passed over the score, 
they were greeted with a general exclamation of delight and a 
universal clapping of hands. The time had not been announced, 
but all were satisfied that it was a great improvement upon the 
previous record, though few were prepared to hear 2 m. 28f s. 
announced from the judges' stand. This made the time of the 
two miles 5 m. 1} s. It was entirely unprecedented ; the best 
time on record being that of Lady Suffolk and Rifle, of two miles 
in 5 m. 19 s., made May 31, 1842, and of one mile in 2 m. 42 s., 
by Lantern and Whalebone in 1856. After learning the time in 
which his horses had trotted, Mr. Bonner publicly declared that, 
while it was a rule with him never to make a bet, he would pre- 
sent ten thousand dollars as a gift to any gentleman who owned a 
team, if he would drive them in the time just made by Lady 
Palmer and Flatbush Maid ; and this, although the time was not 
so good by nearly three seconds as that of a private trial, namely, 
2 m. 26 s., made a few days previous. 

This great feat, and the circumstances out of which it arose, 
had more influence in drawing public attention to driving the 
trotting horse than any other single occurrence in his whole his- 
tory. Mr. Bonner's refusal to be somewhat dispelled the fancy 
that it was impossible to own a fajt horse without using him for 
gambling purposes ; which fancy had arisen from the fact that 
running horses in America are of no use except upon the turf. 
Taken with the established popularity of driving, .and the in- 
creased facilities for it provided in trotting-parks and improved 
roads, that refusal assisted in making the use of the fast trotting 
horse general, and in freeing a perfectly innocent and healthful 



544 THE HORSE. 

amusement from a disreputable odor which had for many years 
attached to it. 

During the year 1863 the war caused a great diversion of public 
attention ; nevertheless, the records of the turf exhibit a goodly 
amount of excellent work. It was marked by the splendid trot- 
ting of the horses General Butler, George Wilkes, George M. 
Patchen, Silas Rich, California Damsel, and by the first appear- 
ance of a number of the horses that have since become famous. 
In May, the Hambletonian, Shark, made his mark in a three-mile 
race with Frank Temple ; placing himself in the list with Screw- 
driver, Dutchman, Lady Suffolk, and all the famous old three- 
milers of the first generations. He won the race with Frank 
Temple in two heats; trotting the first in 7 m. 47f s., and the 
second in 7 m. 52$ s. 

The great two-mile race, on the Fashion Course, Long Island, 
between General Butler and George M. Patchen, in which General 
Butler made the best two-mile time to wagon on record, took place 
on the 18th of June. General Butler won the first heat in 4 in. 
56J s. In the second heat, owing to some unfair advantage taken 
by the driver of General Butler, the judges declared him dis- 
tanced. Two days after, the same horses met again, when Gene- 
ral Butler came off victorious ; winning three mile-heats in 2 m. 
27$ s., 2 m. 30 s., and 2 m. 32 s. In the early part of this 
month — June — George Wilkes, in harness, beat Rockingham, 
under the saddle, in three straight mile-heats, the best of which 
was trotted in 2 m. 24$ s. 

In September, George Wilkes and General Butler were pitted 
against each other again, in a race on the Fashion Course. The 
year before, George Wilkes had beaten Ethan Allen, and he came 
to the encounter with the green laurels of his victory over Rock- 
ingham. It was stipulated that he should go in harness, but this 
was to him no drawback, while General Butler was privileged to 
go under the saddle, the style most favorable to an exhibition of 
all his powers. The day was fine, and the track in excellent con- 
dition. General Butler appeared in trim to surpass all his pre- 
vious performances, and perhaps outstrip all his predecessors. 
George Wilkes did not appear so well, and in the race broke fre- 
quently, but pushed General Butler out in the last heat in 2 m. 
23$ s. The preceding two heats were won by General Butler, in 
2 m. 29$ s. and 2 m. 28$ s. General Butler may therefore be 
fairly regarded as the first horse upon the trotting turf in 1863; 
and his great endurance and speed entitle him to be mentioned 
among the very first of American trotting horses, living or dead. 

The great performance of the gray mare Peerless also took place 
on Long Island in the summer of this year. She was then, as 
now, the property of Mr. Robert Bonner, and the performance 



THE TURF AND THE TROTTING HORSE. 545 

referred to was a trial of one mile to wagon. Hiram Woodruff 
drove her in 2 m. 23£ s., which is the best time to wagon upon 
record. This mare was bred in Orange county, New York, and 
is directly derived through her sire, American Star, from Sir 
Henry. She is therefore the best living representative of that 
excellent and popular strain of trotting blood, and is held by many 
of its admirers to be able to draw a wagon faster than any other 
horse living. 

It will perhaps be noticed that the principal races mentioned 
have been upon Long Island. This is owing to the fact of its 
being the seat of the great metropolitan race-courses to which 
every first-class horse sooner or later is brought. New York City 
is, in truth, the sporting emporium of the Union. The great 
facilities for driving in its suburbs, and the large number of its 
wealthy men interested in fast horses, make it the best market for 
them in America. The record of trotting on Long Island is, con- 
sequently, a record of its progress in the whole country. 

The year 1864 was one of the most brilliant in trotting-turf 
annals. A fitting record of its great races would fill a volume. 
They represent the best horses of 1862 and 1863, — General But- 
ler, George Wilkes, Lady Emma, and Stonewall Jackson ; and 
such additions as Dexter, Shark, Nutwood, Brunette, Prince, May 
Queen, Lady Thorn, and Commodore Vanderbilt. Some of the 
latter had been on the turf for a short time previous ; but it was 
in 1864 that they flowered into a fulness of speed which gained 
them a national reputation. Dexter, however, the greatest of all, 
and the horse that at present represents the highest development 
of speed in trotting, made his first appearance on the 4th of May 
of this year. 

Dexter was bred in Orange county, New York, of the blood of 
Messenger and Sir Henry. That of the former he derived from 
his sire, Hambletonian ; and the latter from his grandsire, Ameri- 
can Star. He was foaled in 1857, and was therefore seven years 
old when he made his appearance on the turf. He is of a rich 
brown color, fifteen hands one and one-half inches high, and has 
all the characteristics which distinguish the trotter, as the follow- 
ing minute analysis of his prominent features exhibits : " His 
head, though somewhat large, is clean and bony; lower jaw well 
open at the base, leaving ample room for the windpipe ; ears taper- 
ing and lively; eyes bright and prominent; head well set on to a 
rather light neck, which is well fitted to fine sloping shoulders; 
withers high, with- great depth of brisket, and a good barrel ; 
back slightly arched, with broad loin and hips, and a drooping 
rump; uncommonly long from the point of the hip to the hock; 
short cannon-bone. Though wide across the hip, he is more sc 
measured across the stifles, where his power is most apparent; fine 
46* 2 m 



546 THE HORSE. 

arm and thigh ; his limhs are clean and sinewy, and without 
blemish, with long pasterns fitting into well-shaped hoofs; mane 
and tail sufficiently full, and the latter denoting his Hambletonian 
origin." * In the seven years which preceded his first appearance, 
his frame had become firmly knit, and his muscles developed and 
hardened, so that, when placed in the skilful hands of Hiram 
Woodruff, he had the strength to undergo a thorough training, 
and to maintain and repeat every improvement in speed. 

The first race on the Fashion Course in 1864 was that in which 
Stonewall Jackson, of Hartford, Connecticut, beat Frank Cosette 
and Greneral Grant in 2 m. 30 s. This was on the 10th of April; 
and the race of Stonewall Jackson, Lady Collins, and Dexter fol- 
lowed on the 4th of May. Although Dexter was a green horse, 
the fact of his being pitted against such a champion as Stonewall 
Jackson, under the management of Hiram Woodruff, was sufficient 
to excite considerable expectation as well as curiosity, and there 
was in consequence a good attendance at the race. In the first 
heat the horses got off well, Dexter leading, and giving a taste of 
his quality by trotting the first quarter in 37 seconds. Stonewall 
Jackson then drew up, but did not succeed in dispossessing Dexter 
of the lead which he maintained to the end of the heat; time, 
2 m. 33 s. In the next heat Stonewall Jackson led nearly half- 
way round the course, when he was overhauled and passed by 
Dexter, who kept the lead, winning the heat in 2 m. 36 s. In 
the third heat Dexter opened a wide gap between himself and his 
two competitors, which was never closed. He won this heat in 
2 m. 34£ s., and with it the highest opinion of all who had been 
witnesses of the race. Not only his style of trotting, but his 
apparent vigor and courage, impressed every one with the idea of 
a great horse, and caused much speculation as to his future. 
Looking back now, there appears to have been a chance for specu- 
lation of a more easily computable value, as Dexter could probably 
have been bought at that time for five thousand dollars. Two 
days afterwards Dexter beat Lady Collins on the Union Course. 
In the interval between the last heats Commodore Vanderbilt 
drove his famous team, Ploughboy and Postboy, around the course 
several times in fine style, but made no attempt to compete with 
the time placed upon record by Mr. Bonner with Lady Palmer 
and Flatbush Maid. On the 3d of June Dexter started in a race 
with two other Hambletonians, Shark and Hambletonian Second, 
but struck his leg in the first heat, and was withdrawn. He did 
not appear on the turf again during 1864. 

In the early part of this season there was a great revival of 
trotting in all parts of the country. In the West as well as in the 

* From " Turf, Field, and Farm." 



THE TURF AND THE TROTTING HORSE. 547 

East there was an unusual activity upon the turf. At Cincinnati, 
Quaker Boy trotted in 2 m. 30 £ s. ; at Chicago, Black Diamond 
beat General Grant and Boston ; at Woodlawn, Kentucky, Kolla 
Golddust distanced Jerry Morgan in 2 m. 29£ s. ; at Hartford, 
Connecticut, John Morgan beat Prince, trotting five heats, — the 
fifth in 2 m. 28f s. ; at Springfield, Massachusetts, Dan Mace 
beat General Butler, trotting under the saddle, one heat, in 2 m. 
31 s. ; and later in the season, at Boston, Belle of Hartford and 
mate trotted in double harness in 2 m. 33f s. 

The principal races of the year, however, came off on Long 
Island. On the 1st of June, Lady Emma, May Queen, and Dan 
Mace met in a race on Union Course, which was won by Lady 
Emma in three successive heats, — two of which were trotted in 
2 m. 27i s. On the 15th of June General Butler beat George 
Wilkes and John Morgan in a great race on the Fashion Course. 
George Wilkes won the first two heats ; but through the dis- 
graceful conduct of his driver, in driving foul, he was distanced 
by the judges in the third, although he won the heat in 2 m. 24 s. 
The fourth and fifth were won by General Butler in 2 m. 33 £ s., 
and 2 m. 31 £ s., who came out of the contest apparently as fresh 
and vigorous as when he went into it. On the 16th, Toronto 
Chief, the famous son of Boyal George, beat Shark, on the Union 
Course, in 2 m. 25| s. ; and July 8th, Shark was also beaten by 
Goshen Maid in 2 m. 31f s. 

On the 21st of September a great race between the champions 
General Butler, Lady Emma, Prince, and John Morgan, took 
place on the Fashion Course. It was won by Prince, of Hartford, 
who trotted the three last of five heats in 2 m. 28£ s., 2 m. 30£ s., 
and 2 m. 30} s., beating at the same time both Lady Emma and 
General Butler, — a distinction never enjoyed by any other horse. 

October 8th there was another meeting of the same horses. 
George Wilkes was entered also; and if he had trotted, it would 
have included nearly all the great rivals on the turf. As it was, 
the celebrity of the horses engaged in it, and the fact of their 
having trotted together a few weeks before, excited very great 
interest in the race. Their previous trial had been in harness ; 
this was to wagons. Lady Emma was the favorite, and she came 
on the ground in the finest condition ; Prince had the prestige of 
success ; while General Butler and John Morgan were well sus- 
tained by their friends, upon the strength of their many victories. 
The race was worthy the reputation of the horses engaged, and 
fully met public expectations. It was indeed one of the best that 
was ever trotted. Lady Emma increased her great reputation by 
winning every heat. Her time was 2 m. 27£ s., 2 m. 26£ s., and 
2 m. 26f s. Flora Temple, in her best race to wagons, trotted 
three heats in 2 m. 25 s., 2 m. 27£ s., and 2 m. 27£ s.. which 



548 THE HORSE. 

cannot be regarded as very much better tban tbe time of Lady 
Emma in this race. 

On the 12th of October Stonewall Jackson trotted a three-mile 
race with Shark, in which he made the best three-mile time on 
record, excepting that of Dutchman. He trotted two heats; the 
second in exactly the same time as the first, — 7 m. 39 8. Shark 
showed himself a worthy antagonist, and his splendid trotting 
made the race very interesting. October 17th, the horse Com- 
modore Vanderbilt beat Toronto Chief in 2 m. 33f s., and esta- 
blished his reputation as a first-class trotter, — a reputation which 
he fully sustained the following year. On the 21st of October 
Lady Thorn e, the famous daughter of Mambrino Chief, the great 
Messenger horse of the West, trotted at Philadelphia with Shark 
in one of her earliest races, in 2 m. 32 2 s. In this race she gave 
a good earnest of her future greatness. 

The trotting season of 1865 opened about the 1st of June, and 
was marked by fine races in all parts of the country. In many 
of these the horses that have been previously mentioned were pitted 
against Dexter, who made the year memorable in trotting records 
by his surpassing performances. On the 2d of June he beat 
General Butler; trotting three heats in 2 m. 26| s., 2 m. 201 s., 
2 m. 24£ s. This showed a marked improvement in his trotting 
capacity, his best time in 1864 being 2 m. 30 s. On the 12th he 
was beaten by Lady Thorne, who trotted a mile in this race in 
2 m. 24 s. On the 26th she beat Stonewall Jackson in a three- 
mile race, but without making a remarkable record. A race with 
General Butler followed September 7th, and one with the same 
horse and George Wilkes, September 21st. George Wilkes had 
been previously beaten on the 20th of June by Lady Emma, — a 
mare in praise of whose beauty, speed, endurance, and reliability 
it is impossible to say enough. The race of September 21st was 
won by Dexter, whose claim to the title " King of the Turf" was 
now pretty clearly established. It received, however, an endorse- 
ment on the 10th of October, which rendered it indisputable. 
On that day he trotted his great race against time, on the Fashion 
Course. In the presence of all the leading horsemen of the 
country, who had assembled to see Flora Temple for ever dis- 
possessed of her place at the head of the trotting horses of 
America, Dexter trotted one mile under the saddle in 2 m. 18^ s. 
Subsequent to this great feat he made his appearance on the turf 
only twice in this year, — each time in a race with the indefatiga- 
ble bay veteran, General Butler. In the last race Dexter trotted 
two miles in 4 m. 564 s. 

In the latter part of this season there remains to be mentioned 
the race in which General Butler beat George Wilkes and Lady 



THE TURF AND THE TROTTING HORSE. 549 

Emma, adding another to his long list of splendid victories ; and 
two races in which George Wilkes beat Commodore Vanderbilt. 

November 16th, 1865, the gentlemen of New York interested 
in horses had the high honor of entertaining General Grant at 
their pleasant rendezvous, Dubois's Club House, on Harlem Lane. 
The Club House is an open cottage building, situated near the 
road, with a one-half mile course immediately in the rear. 
Through the agency of Mr. George Wilkes, — during General 
Grant's visit to the city, — the owners of most of the fine horses 
were informed of the General's desire to see their horses, and, 
upon solicitation, he appointed a day to meet them at Dubois's 
Club House. On the day appointed, there was such a gathering 
of trotting horses and horsemen as was never equalled. Flora 
Temple, still living, was there to claim admiration for the splendid 
performances of other days ; Dexter, in the height of fame ; The 
Auburn Horse, of whose great speed every one present had caught 
glimpses; Lady Emma, Lantern, Peerless, George Wilkes, Gene- 
ral Butler, Toronto Chief, Commodore Vanderbilt, Brunette, Ella 
Sherwood, Lady Clifden, and many others. The General, who is 
a great lover of the horse, was highly gratified ; and his discrimi- 
nating remarks indicated his ability to review an army of horses 
quite as well as an army of men. 

This review showed the strength and richness of the trotting 
turf in material for various and brilliant displays of speed, and in 
the seasons of 1866 and 1867 these succeeded each other so 
rapidly as to lose something of their former novelty. The season 
of 1866 opened early. The reappearance of Dexter on the 15th 
of June was preceded by several fine races. In one of these, 
which took place on the 15th of May, on the Fashion Course, 
Rosamond, a dark chestnut mare by Old Columbus, and Mambrino 
Pilot, in whom the strains of Messenger and Pilot are united, took 
part. Mambrino Pilot, although untrained, won one heat in 2 m. 
34f s. The other three heats were won by Rosamond, who trotted 
the first in 2 m. 30 i s. On the 30th of May, Shark, a really 
first-class horse, but almost uniformly unsuccessful, beat Lady 
Emma in 2 m. 28£ s., 2 m. 30 s., and 2 m. 36 s.; Lady Emma 
winning two of the five heats in 2 m. 2S| s., and 2 m. 26£ s. 

The antagonist of Dexter, on the 15th of June, was George M. 
Patchen, Jr., a son of George M. Patchen, — a horse sixteen and 
one-half hands high, and of proportionate size, but compactly 
built, and possessing rare ability as a trotter. He had beaten 
Commodore Vanderbilt on the 1st of the month, and high hopes 
were entertained of his power to dispute the supremacy of the 
" King of the Turf;" but Dexter beat him easily in three suc- 
cessive heats. After beating General Butler and Commodore 
Vanderbilt once more, Dexter made a tour of the country, trotting 



550 THE HORSE. 

at Philadelphia, Syracuse, Avon Park, Buffalo, Cleveland, Ham- 
trank Course, Chicago, Milwaukee, Adrian, Kalamazoo, Pitts- 
burgh, Baltimore, and Washington. He was everywhere successful. 
At Buffalo he beat Rolla Golddust; at Pittsburgh, the Magoozler 
pacer and George M. Patchen, Jr. ; and at Washington, Silas 
Rich. 

October 25th, 1866, there was a race on the Union Course, 
Long Island, between the celebrated mares Lady Thorne and 
Lady Emma. Judged by the record, there was hardly a choice 
between them, — if anything, the balance was in favor of Lady 
Emma; both represented the best blood and the form of the 
trotter in the highest perfection. The race between them was 
one which any amateur in horses, desirous of seeing a race be- 
tween equals, would have suggested, and the result proved the 
wisdom and beauty of such races. The first and second heats 
were won by Lady Thorne ; the third and fourth by Lady Emma; 
and so closely had each heat been contested that the betting in 
the last heat was even. When this was trotted, so near were they 
together at the score that it was generally considered a dead heat; 
but the judges decided. Lady Thorne the winner by a head. 

The purchase of the beautiful trotting mare Young Pocahontas 
by Mr. Bonner, for a very large sum, was among the interesting 
turf items of the year. This mare is a daughter of Ethan Allen 
and the pacer Pocahontas. She inherited the wonderful sym- 
metry and perfect trotting gait of her sire, and the power and 
endurance of her dam. The great pacing match, in which Poca- 
hontas distanced Hero, in 2 m. 17 1 s., is in the memory of all 
veterans of the turf. Young Pocahontas was owned for a time in 
Boston, but caught the attention of Mr. Bonner, who obtained the 
refusal of her. Nevertheless, she was sold to other parties in 
New York, from whom Mr. Bonner obtained her by paying over 
twenty-five thousand dollars. 

The trotting season of 1867 is still fresh in the minds of all 
readers of newspapers. It will be long remembered for its extra- 
ordinary number of races and trotting horses, and for the great 
performances of Dexter, and his retirement from the turf. In the 
first part of the season he was taken to his early home, and gave 
an exhibition of his speed at Middletown, beating Lady Abdallah. 
He returned to distance Lady Thorne in 2 m. 22 s. on the 28th 
of May. The next day a race took place on the Fashion Course 
between Ethan Allen and Brown George, both with running 
mates, in which Ethan Allen astonished the trotting world by 
making a heat in 2 m. 19 s. He was forthwith matched to go 
with a running mate against Dexter. Although a running mate 
was known to be of very great assistance, yet Ethan Allen, thus 
assisted, was not generally considered by any means the equal of 



THE TURF AND THE TROTTING HORSE. 551 

Dexter. His best performance made in this way was nearly a 
second slower than Dexter's 2 m. 18A s., and the latter's power of 
endurance was acknowledged by all to be superior. The race 
excited the greatest interest. It took place on the Fashion Course, 
on the 21st of June, in the presence of many thousands of people. 
There was the largest amount of speculation, and conning over of 
the records of the turf, in order to arrive at a more correct approx- 
imation of the result ; but this was all to no purpose, as the result 
was entirely unprecedented. Ethan Allen and mate won in three 
terrific trials, in 2 m. 15 s., 2 m. 16 s., 2 m. 19 s. Dexter's time 
was 2 m. 17 s.. 2 m. 18 s., 2 m. 21 s. Although beaten, Dexter 
surpassed himself and all his predecessors on the trotting turf. 
The advantage of a running mate, great as it was known to be, 
was not until now fully appreciated. Ethan Allen's best time, 
single, does not approach the time made in this race by Dexter. 
Notwithstanding this, the sterling qualities of this grand old horse 
must not be overlooked or depreciated. As the antagonist of 
Flora Temple and George M. Patchen, as well as of Dexter, he is 
entitled to rank among the first trotting horses of his time. 

Dexter, after trotting two two-mile races with Lady Thorne on 
the Fashion Course, in the first of which he made his best two- 
mile time, 4 m. 51 s., started on another tour through the country, 
trotting for purses at the principal cities. 

July 4th, at Middletown, New Jersey, he encountered Ethan 
Allen and running mate a second time, and with the same result ; 
the team winning in three successive heats. July 10th, he beat 
Lady Thorn at Trenton, New Jersey. 

It was now established that there was no horse in the country 
capable of competing with Dexter on equal terms ; and his next 
three races were with Brown George, assisted by a running mate. 
But the latter, thus assisted, was not equal to the New England 
champion ; and Dexter beat him in three successive races, winning 
each race in three successive heats. The time made by Dexter in 
the last race, which took place at Boston on the 30th of July, 
shows the terrible demand upon him in these uneven contests. It 
was 2 m. 21f s., 2 m. 19 s., 2 m. 2H s. 

On the 14th of August he trotted at Buffalo in a race against 
the time he had just previously made at Boston, 2 m. 19 s. He 
was allowed three trials, in the second of which he trotted a mile 
in 2 m. 17£ s. This was in harness, and was altogether unex- 
pected and unprecedented. After this race it was announced that 
he had been sold to Mr. Robert Bonner; and that, so soon as his 
engagements at Chicago were fulfilled, he would pass into that 
gentleman's hands, and be added to the unequalled collection of 
famous horses in his private stable. 

The withdrawal of this great horse from the turf was univer 



552 THE HORSE. 

sally regarded with regret; as thousands were thereby deprived 
of an opportunity of seeing him, and witnessing an exhibition of 
his wonderful powers. This general feeling of regret shows the 
strength of the interest in the trotting horse throughout the 
country, as it exists entirely free from the passion for betting, for 
no one would bet against Dexter. His superiority had made the 
purses raised from the admission fees to the various race-courses 
where he trotted, the principal source of his profit to his owners. 
The price paid for him was also an evidence of the high value 
placed upon the trotting horse for pleasure-driving, and induces 
the hope, that in the popularity of this pastime the horse and the 
turf may be relieved of the odium which immoral practices have 
brought upon both. 

During the summer the great fairs held in the interior had 
attracted most of the best horses and professional horsemen, and 
the stables and race-courses of Long Island were deserted ; but by 
the end of September most of them had returned to their old 
quarters, and were in the best condition for the severe work of 
the fall season. 

On the 30th of September a race took place between Lady 
Thorne, Lucy, and a new horse, Mountain Boy, bred in Orange 
county, New York, of the Hambletonian stock, and owned by 
Commodore Vanderbilt. He had recently risen into high favor, 
and from certain private trials it was assumed that he was more 
than a match for Lady Thorne. This assumption, however, proved 
incorrect, as Lady Thorne won the race in three successive heats, 
making a record which has been surpassed but a few times in the 
whole history of trotting. 

The second race between Lady Thorne and Mountain Boy came 
off on the 7th of October, and was won by the latter; but the 
best time made was slower by one and one-half seconds than the 
time made by Lady Thorne in the previous race. Mountain Boy 
has since trotted a mile in harness in a public trial, in 2 m. 21} s. ; 
but it is still doubtful whether he can draw a wagon, and beat 
Lady Thorne. 

The races of General Butler, George Wilkes, May Queen, 
George M. Patchen, Jr., Daisy Burns, Mountain Maid, Ben 
Franklin, and Empress, which took place in various parts of the 
country this year, were in the best style of these fine horses. 

On the 10th of October a race took place on the Fashion 
Course, which is noticeable for the great interest with which it 
was regarded by breeders. It was projected a year before it took 
place, and was between colts three years of age, and all by Ham- 
bletonian. There had been sixteen entries of promising colts 
scattered all over the country, but on the day of the race only six 
appeared on the ground. The winner was a full brother of Bru- 



THE TURF AND THE TROTTING HORSE. 553 

nette and Bruno, one of the most promising young horses in the 
country. 

This concludes a survey of trotting in America from its rise to 
the present time. It will be seen that it is at present stronger in 
popularity, and in the number and quality of its horses, than ever 
before in its history. The progress in speed has been gradual, 
and can be better appreciated by referring to the tabular state- 
ments of the best performances, commencing with the first public 
trotting race, on pages 523 and 524. 

Trotting horses have increased in value even more rapidly than 
in numbers or speed. Since 1830 that increase has been about 
one hundred per cent, every ten years. The amount paid by Mr. 
McDonald, of Baltimore, for Flora Temple in 1858, §8000, repre- 
sents the value of the best trotting horse bred in the country up 
to that date. In 1862, Mr. Sprague, of Rhode Island, paid 
$11,000 for California Damsel. Mr. Bonner paid $13,500 for The 
Auburn Horse in 186-1; $25,000 for Young Pocahontas in 1866; 
and $33,000 for Dexter in 1867. The great stock horse of Orange 
county, Hambletonian, was valued in 1866 at $100,000. It is 
now no unusual thing for fast trotting horses, and fine stock horses 
of the best trotting blood, to sell for amounts varying from ten to 
twenty thousand dollars. 

The events which have transpired in the country during the 
past few years, affecting all values, have had an effect in bringing 
about the change in the value of horses ; but a great deal must 
also be credited to the legitimate rise caused by increased demand. 
The increase in the demand becomes apparent when the source 
from which it now chiefly emanates is considered. The highest 
prices paid for trotting horses are paid by those who have no inten- 
tion of placing them upon the turf. They are bought for pleasure- 
driving. The taste for this pastime has already deprived the turf 
of its greatest ornaments, and it absorbs nearly all the promising 
young trotting horses as soon as they make their appearance. The 
market thus created by a taste which makes nearly every man a 
driver and every road a course is infinitely more extensive than 
that which existed when the only field for the display and enjoy- 
ment of speed was the regularly appointed race-courses. The 
race-course in America is, in fact, gradually becoming merely an 
exercising ground for developing and training horses previous to 
their passage into the hands of gentlemen who keep them solely 
for their own amusement. 

In proportion as the cultivation of the trotting horse has been 
encouraged by the demand for him for driving, the practice of 
using him on the turf for the purpose of gaming has declined. 
Gaming is not a practice in harmony with the calculating and 
careful acquisitive character of the American people. Their 
47 



554 THE HORSE. 

native prudence and foresight incline them to shun any mode of 
investment in which the chances of loss and gain are so nearly 
equal. 

The turf and its gaming accompaniment have been only the 
nurses of trotting. They have furnished a field where those inte- 
rested in the horse could gratify their taste, and see the results of 
their labor and expenditure in breeding and training. But the 
growth of a more general appreciation of trotting has widened 
and enlarged the arena for the display of it, and the turf has 
assumed a secondary place. The decay of betting, its leading 
feature, is the best evidence of the fact. During the past year a 
large majority of the races throughout the country were for purses 
offered by associations formed for the improvement of stock ; and 
in all the exhibitions the excitement and pleasure were princi- 
pally derived from a genuine interest in the performances of 
favorite animals. 

In conclusion, the peculiar adaptation of driving, as a pastime, 
to the character and needs of a large portion of the people, affords 
an assurance of its enduring popularity. The undivided pursuit 
of wealth has made native-born Americans in the highest degree 
active, intense, and calculating. The fierce competition resulting 
from the predominance of the commercial sjjirit makes the largest 
demand upon their intellectual and vital energies. The life of the 
American, especially in towns, is one of unremitting endeavor; 
and an adequate means of relief and recreation is one of the 
chief requirements of the time. Driving furnishes the means. 
The act of driving is an easy and pleasant diversion. It gratifies 
a natural inclination to control, and affords moderate exercise. 
The docility, spirit, and power of the horse engages the sym- 
pathies ; while the trials or brushes on the road, to which emula- 
tion on the part of owners of fast horses gives rise, add zest and 
piquancy. 

The change from the town to the open country is gradual. 
There is a preparation for the effect of the landscape. The influ- 
ence of nature in restoring mental equilibrium, and counteracting 
the effect of perplexing and absorbing employment, cannot be 
over-estimated. It furnishes the great corrective of American 
life, and the eagerness with which it is sought is evidenced in the 
national art. A fine nervous temperament makes the majority of 
the population peculiarly open to this influence ; and, whether 
acknowledged or not, the facilities which driving affords for enjoy- 
ing it constitutes one of the strongest claims of this pastime to 
popular favor. 



THE TURF AND THE TROTTING HORSE. 555 



APPENDIX. 

The position of the turf in America, despite the prejudices 
and practices which tend to make it disreputable, was never so 
high as at present. There is throughout the country an interest 
excited in the sport among a class of citizens who have hitherto 
held entirely aloof from it. This is undoubtedly owing to the ex- 
ample of Mr. Robert Bonner and a few other gentlemen, who have 
had the moral courage to withstand the wholly unreasonable popu- 
lar prejudice against owning and driving fast horses ; and hence 
the growth and extension of the practice of fast driving for plea- 
sure. In another place we endeavored to show the real adaptation 
of this pastime to the taste, disposition, and occupation of our 
American people, who require an outdoor sport that does not ne- 
cessitate much physical exertion. This want is met by driving ; 
and racing is its legitimate adjunct. The turf has reaped its ad- 
vantage in this new and general interest in the horse, both in its 
revival on a far grander scale, and in a truly moral and healthy 
system of management. The rapidly increasing wealth of the 
country, and the consequent increase in the price of luxuries so 
rare and highly prized, has encouraged the breeding of fine horses, 
and we now have stock-farms that a few years ago would have 
placed their owners, no matter how situated, upon the sure road 
to bankruptcy. These great nurseries are not confined to one 
state, but are scattered over the whole Union, and they are now 
bringing forth hundreds of speedy horses, and promise, ere long, 
a rival of Dexter. From Stony Ford, the splendid establishment 
of Mr. Charles Backman, we have the young horse Startle, who 
had hardly made his appearance when he was caught up by Mr. 
Bonner. The habit of buying up promising young horses and 
withdrawing them from the turf on the part of Mr. Bonner, is re- 
sented by some persons professionally interested in the turf; but 
whatever their views may be, people in general will be disposed to 
consider that a horse is put to quite as good a purpose when he is 
trotted for pleasure as when he is trotted for money. As another 
has noted, the certainty of obtaining such a price as was paid for 
Startle, for every horse that performs an equal feat at an equal 
age, will go much further towards improving the breed of horses 
for uses undeniably legitimate, than the chance of winning un- 
known sums by uses of questionable legitimacy. 

During the past two or three years we have had an unparalleled 
increase in the number of fast trotting horses. Since the first 
publication of the paper of which these pages are a postscript, 
there have appeared horses, then but just born, which are already 



556 THE HORSE. 

ranked with the greatest on the turf. Of these, Joe Elliott 
is the first. On the 16th of November, 1870, this six-year old, 
driven by John Murphy, and carrying over track weight, trotted 
a mile at Prospect Park in 2 m. 18? s. On the same day, Poca- 
hontas, driven by Dan Mace, and carrying full track weight, 
trotted a mile in 2 m. 19 s. Pocahontas had, a few weeks pre- 
viously trotted a mile on the Fashion Course, with light weight, in 
2 m. 18 s. These are the fastest miles ever trotted on Long Island, 
excepting Dexter's performances. In August, 1870, Dexter 
trotted half a mile at Fleetwood Park to a road wagon in 1 m. 6 J s., 
which is several seconds faster than any other horse ever trotted 
even to a skeleton wagon. The fine horses, George Palmer and 
American Girl, have greatly distinguished themselves in races 
during the past year. In one race to wagon in which they were 
the contestants, very fast time was made. George Palmer won 
the race in four heats. The first was in 2 m. 25 J s. The second 
was in 2 m. 24£ s., and in this heat the mare, American Girl, was 
only a length behind the winner. This is not, as has been stated, 
the fastest time to wagon on record; but it beats the 2m. 25s. 
of Flora Temple and George Wilkes. The best time on record to 
wagon, is 2 m. 24 s. This time was made by Dexter iu a race 
with Lady Thorn on the Fashion Course, and was afterwards made 
by Lady Thorn herself on the same course. But Dexter has 
trotted much faster than this to wagon. In a public trial at 
Prospect Park, the same course on which George Palmer trotted 
in 2 m. 24$ s., Dexter trotted a mile to a road wagon in 2 m. 21f s. 
He drew on this occasion 319 pounds. As this feat, however, 
was not accomplished in a race it is not upon the record. The 
most recent addition to the ranks of the fleetest horses on the 
trotting turf, is Gazelle, a mare by Hambletonian, dam the Clay 
mare Hattie Wood. Gazelle has never yet trotted in a public 
race or at a public trial, yet her speed is well known, and it is an- 
nounced that she has been sold by the owner of Stony Ford, by 
whom she was bred, for $25,000. We are well acquainted with 
this mare, having picked her out from a field of colts as a good 
one when she was a yearling filly. We have no doubt but that 
if she lives to make a public exhibition she will surprise the world 
by her speed. J. E. 

New York, January 1871. 



THE 



PERCHERON HORSE 



47' 




« 






^~ 



H 



i & s 



-1 a 



THE 



PEKCHERON HOESE 



The Percheron Horse, a native of the department of Perche, 
in the north-western part of France, is thus described by Mr. 
Charles Du Huys, in a recent official report to the government : 
" He is in height from 14f to 16 hands; of a sanguine tempera- 
ment, mixed in variable proportions with the musculo-lymphatic ; 
his color is almost always gray, and is, among the characteristic 
features, that which first strikes the eye. He has style, although 
the head is rather large and long ; nostrils well open and well 
dilated ; eye large and expressive ; forehead broad ; ear fine ; neck 
rather short but well filled out ; withers high ; shoulder pretty 
long and sloping ; breast rather flat but high and deep ; a well- 
rounded body ; back rather long ; the croup horizontal and mus- 
cular ; tail attached high ; short and strong joints, and the ten- 
don generally weak ; a foot always excellent, although rather flat 
in the low countries and natural meadows ; a gray coat ; fine skin ; 
silky and abundant mane. Such are the most general characteris- 
tics of the old Percheron race. These are the points which are 
still noticed upon what remain of some old horses, preserved from 
the transformation which commenced long ago ; for at the present 
moment everything is much changed. Since the time of the for- 
eign crossings the foot has become flatter, the head overcharged, 
the tendon still weaker, the back longer, the shoulder has lost its 
direction and the croup has become shorter. The race has changed 
suddenly to fill new wants which have unexpectedly sprung up." 
From the same authority we quote : " The Percheron shows a very 
great analogy by his coat, conformation, character of race, mild 
disposition, and endurance, to the Arab, of which he seems to be 
the son, notwithstanding certain differences, the result of time, cli- 
mate, and region in which he is bred and in which he lives. I have 
said that the Percheron exhibits in common with the Arab numer- 
ous marks of a common parentage and relationship ; these marks are 
very obvious. A Percheron, a true Percheron, for some still exist 

(559) 



560 THE HORSE. 

(as the famous Toulouse of M. Cheradame of Ecouche; and the 
renowned Jean-le-Blane of M. Viard, of Villers, near Sap, in the 
department of the Orne, etc., etc.,) placed alongside of an Arab, 
presents, notwithstanding his heavier and grosser form, analogies 
with him so striking that we are easily induced to believe them un- 
doubted relations. The Percheron of the primitive type has a gray 
coat like the Arab ; and like him, an abundant and silky mane, a 
fine skin, and a large, prominent, and expressive eye ; a broad fore- 
head, dilated nostrils and a full and deep chest, although the girth 
with him as with the Arab, is always lacking in fulness ; more bony 
and leaner limbs, and less covered with hair than those of the draft 
horse families. He has not, it is true, the fine haunch and fine 
form of the shoulder, nor that swan-like neck which distinguishes 
the Arab ; but it is not to be forgotten that for ages he has been 
employed for draft purposes, and these habits have imparted to 
his bony frame an anatomical structure, a combination of levers 
adapted to the work he is called upon to perform. He has not, 
I again acknowledge, such a fine skin as the Arab, nor his 
prettily rounded oval and small foot, but we must remember the 
fact that he lives under a cold climate upon elevated plains, where 
nature gives him for a covering a thicker and warmer coat, and 
that he has for ages been stepping upon a moist, clayey soil. 

In all that remains in him, we recognise a heavy Arab, modified 
and remodelled by climate and peculiar circumstances. He has 
remained mild and laborious, like his sire ; he is brought up like 
him, in the midst of the family, and, like him, he possesses in a 
very high degree the faculty of easy acclimation. He acquires 
this in the midst of the numerous migrations he accomplishes in 
Perche, the counterpart of those that the type horse makes upon 
the sands of the desert. A final comparison, which, as yet, has 
not been sufficiently noticed, is, that like the Arab, he has no 
need of being mutilated in order to be trained, managed, and kept 
without danger. In a word, the Percheron, notwithstanding the 
ages which separate them, presents an affinity as close as possible 
with the primitive horse, which is the Arab." 

Du Huys mentions in support of his theory of the Arabian 
origin of the Percheron, the historical fact of the defeat of the 
Saracens near Tours, by Charles Martel, in the fourth century, 
assuming the probability that many horses of the invaders were 
apportioned among the people of that section of France, and as the 
males were entire, the eastern and native blood would naturally be 
commingled in subsequent generations. 

He also says, " The Abbe Faet, in a letter addressed to the 
Congress of Mortagne, July 16th, 1843, and in his great work 
upon La Perche, cites in this connection a Lord of Montdoubleau, 
Geoffroy IV., and Rotrou, Count of La Perche, as having brought 



THE PERCIIERON HORSE. 561 

back from Palestine several stallions which were |ut to mares, and 
the pi'ogeny most carefully preserved. 

'• The small number of the sires, their incomparable beauty, and 
manifest superiority, must have led to the in-and-in breeding so 
much deprecated by most breeders ; but the qualities of the sires 
became indelibly fixed upon their progeny. 

" The Lord of Montdoubleau was, it is said, the most zealous of 
the advocates and breeders of the new blood, and, being the m 
zealous, was the most successful ; hence it is that the Montdoubleau 
stock is to this day the best in Perche. The Count Roger of 
Bellesme, imported both Arabian and Spanish horses, as did 
Gi-oroze, the Lord of Saint Cerney, Courville, and Courseroult; these 
are historical facts which have their importance. Like chronicles, 
it is true, exist for other provinces — for Limousin, for Navarre, for 
Auvergne (the land of noble horses), also for Brittany and 
Maine ; but in the latter not the least sign of Eastern blood is 
perceptible. The fact is, the crusaders from all the French 
provinces naturally brought back with them more or less of the 
Eastern blood, which they had learned to appreciate on the plains 
of Palestine — but the truth is, it has not been preserved elsewhere; 
and that we in La Perche, after so many centuries, should be so 
fortunate as to be able to show the traces of it, should stimulate 
us to its careful preservation. The historical data, these induc- 
tions, incomplete as they may be, lead to the belief that for 
antiquity the Percheron yields to no other of our French races, 
and that the soil which has nourished and preserved it, must be 
one of the best in France for horse-breeding. Under the feudal 
rule it is not probable that the Percheron as a race had the 
characteristics it now possesses. It must have been lighter, but 
still possessing within itself the character it now presents. 

" The essential point is to prove that there was, at that period, a 
native race; and if the extraordinary life formerly led there — if 
the aspect of the country, which must have been always fertile — 
if the historical inductions do not prove it, the universal tradition 
of the whole country should not leave us in any doubt in respect 
to the fact. Let us then take no account of the silence < f 
historians. This silence is no proof of the non-existence of the 
Percheron. Most of these writers were gentlemen of the equ< ■-- 
trian order; they prized the saddle-horse, while they ignored 
equally useful breeds of all work." 

Allowing due weight to Mr. Du Iluys' arguments of historical 
induction, national tradition, and similarity of color, disposition, 
and form, it is hardly fair to presume that the true Percheron is 
the primitive Arab modified by climate, food, and education. 
History is the most important element in establishing the perio Is 
of the formation of races; and inasmuch as history has been ui 

2n 



562 THE HORSE. 

recently silent with regard to the existet.je of the Perch erorj 
type of horses, we are entitled to suppose that a breed as distinct 
in its character from others as is the Percheron, has but lately 
attained its present development. Mr. Du Huys' conclusions are 
evidently labored ; he seems content with the idea that as the 
Arabian is as near perfection as any horse can be, and the 
Percheron is as near perfection as any horse ought to be, there- 
fore the Arabian and the Percheron are of the same family. He 
entirely ignores the well-known fact, that the color of the Arabian, 
within the knowledge of naturalists, has never been confined to 
gray, but for ages the race has shown the bay and gray and their 
derivatives clear-bay, brown-bay, sorrel, white, pure gray, mottle- 
gray, blue-gray, brown and dark chestnut, indicating the mixed 
blood of primitive stocks. 

He forgets that the Percheron does not possess that nervous 
ambition, which is so patent in the horse, largely derived from the 
oriental strain, that we naturally associate this temperament with 
the idea of blood, or warm-blooded as we term it. 

It is much easier to believe that the base of the Percheron 
breed has been something of a different character from the 
Eastern type, the impression of which upon the present stock is a 
matter of history. 

A gray race of horses in France can be traced back to the 
eleventh century, when the influence of the martial barons of that 
period was manifested over Europe in the power of their cavalry. 
In the succeeding century as the use of heavy armor became more 
common, we find a disposition to increase the weight and strength 
of war-horses, which was effected by crossing with the Flanders 
or Flemish stock. 

About this time very large horses were imported into England 
from Lombardy, and as the French Counts were intimately 
connected with the Norman rulers of Britain, it is probable that 
they made use of the same blood for improving their own stock 
of chargers. The origin or history of these Flemish and Lombardy 
horses, we cannot with any degree of certainty ascertain, but 
know that they were of rather coarse organizations, or what Du 
Huys calls the musculo-lymphatic temperament. 

According to tradition, the Norman horse of France had been 
prior to this period largely infused with Spanish blood, a stock 
which owed its best qualities to the Saracen invasion, with its 
consequent introduction of the Arabian and Barbary strains. 

This is the well known historical account of the Norman Horse, 
which has for a long time been one of the celebrated races of 
Europe. 

A feral race of gray horses, stout and pony built, for ages 
roamed through the Pyrenean Crests in Gascony, and in the 



THE PERCHERON HORSE. 563 

Champagne province; these also may have been used in the for- 
mation of the Norman, as they have been known to reassume (by 
judicious crossing and liberal nourishment and attention through 
a few generations), the normal characteristic of the primitive 
white stock, large proportions. 

Here then is a race made up of the primitive long-haired white 
stock, intermingled with several artificial races modified in differ- 
ent countries by climate, food, and education, but largely indebted 
to the Arab and Barb influences for nobility, constitution, ambi- 
tion, and symmetry, which we may term blooded qualities, and to 
the cold-blooded stock of Germany for size and power. 

In Perche, adjoining the home of the Norman, we find a horse 
similar in color (white and the mixture of white and bay, the dap- 
ple) and weight, but finer and nobler, with more constitutional 
vigor, precocity, and activity ; in short, showing more blood. 

Is it likely, as Du Huys supposes, that these two neighbors have 
been distinct races for eight hundred years, or is it easier to be- 
lieve that the Percheron is of comparatively recent formation • 
that he owes his cleaner limbs and finer physique to later infu- 
sions of Eastern blood than that which the Saracens brought into 
France ?' 

Du Huys writes under the head of " Modifications of the Per- 
cheron race." " The Percheron race comes from the Arab, but it 
is necessary to know the causes which have separated it from the 
primitive type. How has it been modified ? How has it lost the 
Arabian character in which it must have been at first clothed ? A 
large number of the French races have been even more pro- 
foundly modified, and have become abject, miserable, puny, and 
misshapen. All equine races have been changed by the effects of 
climate, by the extinction of the feudal system, and by the inau- 
guration of peaceful habits, which have made an agricultural and 
draft horse, of the horse primitively used for the saddle and for 
war. The Percherons must have been especially modified by con- 
tact with the breed of Brittany, where their striking character- 
istics are now met with in a large number of individuals. 

However, it has been vigorously attempted to offset the intru- 
sion of the heavy horse by the continued use of the Arabian 
horse. Indeed we see towards 1760, under the administration of 
the Marquis of Brigges, manager of the stud stables of Piu, all the 
large number of fine Arabian, Barb, and Eastern stallions that 
this establishment owned, were put at the disposition of the Count 
of Mallart, for use at his mare stables of Cdesme near Bellesme. 

The arrival of the Danish and English stallions at the stud 
stables of Piu, put an unfortunate end to the influence of the 
Arab horse in Perche, and it will now be many a long year before 
the Eastern blood will be seen as before. It is only towards 1820, 



564 THE HOUSE. 

still at the same chateau of Coesme, with the grandsons of those 
old admirers of the Arabians, that we find again two Arab horses 
from the stud stables of Piu, Godolpnin and Gallipoli. 

These two valuable stock getters, both gray, again gave tone 
and ardor to the Percheron race, and transformed definitely into 
gray horses the stock of the entire country, which had, it was said, 
become less uniform, and of all colors. 

The Brittany horses have been strongly attracted towards Perche 
by the immense outlet offered by the public service, since the in- 
crease of the roads, to the Percherons. Mixtures between the 
two races must have been frequent. And when a good Brittany 
horse was there met with, he must have been made use of, and the 
old native type has gradually tended to disappear, and its traces 
become more and more rare. This mixture of Percheron and 
Brittany blood, too well marked to be questioned, arises from 
several causes." 

Lieut. Col. Chas. Hamilton Smith, President of the Devon and 
Cornwall Hist. Society, gives the following points in history, 
which have a bearing upon the origin of the Percheron gray as 
well as the Norman, and also furnishes some useful hints in rela- 
tion to the improvement of breeds which are worthy of attention, 
especially the use of large mares in the formation of large stocks. 

" It has been remarked that the Romans paid only a tardy and 
imperfect attention to breeding horses, and we have observed also 
that the stature of these animals, with the exception of the races 
before named, was below the present ordinary size. The Norman 
pirates carried, in their ships the small hardy breed of Scandina- 
via, still in perfection in Iceland; all the riding nations from the 
east and north, Huns, Bulgarians, Goths, and Magyars had small 
horses ; those of the Ardennes, of many parts of France, of the 
Camargue, of Switzerland, the Pyrenees and Britain were still 
smaller ; the Netherland Menaphian alone appear to have reached 
a full stature. It was, therefore, in the first centuries after the 
Moslem invasion of Spain, France, and Calabria, when art and 
science began to revive, and the great empire of the Franks could 
and did provide wide-spreading precautions against invaders, 
among which the most pressing were those that were calculated 
to resist the conquests of Islam. 

With the newly introduced stirrup, they could more properly 
adopt heavy defensive armor, and in order to give the Christian 
chivalry a fair chance of success, that which would increase the 
stature of their war-horses became an object of importance. Ac- 
cordingly about this period, we begin to observe in the West, 
places for breeding and institutions of horse-fairs. 

The Moorish and Spanish Vandal (Andalusian) breeds gradually 



THE PERCHERON HORSE. 565 

passed the Pyrenees, captured in forays, received as presents, or 
introduced by Jews, who were then great horse dealers. 

The race of the Frankish Netherlands carried to the south, 
and the largest mares that could be found in Lombardy, were 
crossed by the southern varieties in breeding places called Haras, 
modified after a name which was derived from some nation on the 
Danube, where Garas and Guida denoted both sexes of that 
animal. 

It was then that the nobility and chivalry of Europe, leading 
almost a nomad life, in quest of war and adventures, began to pay 
large prices for tall, fleet and strong horses; the Christian kings 
of Oviedo and Leon were often pressed to sell or procure war- 
horses. 

We find a Pope John applying to the King of Gallicia for 
" several of the best Mauriscos, which are called in Spain, Al- 
faraces." These Alfaras or Andalus, were a cross breed of Arab 
blood upon the black Vandal and other Gothic races, themselves 
crossed with Roman and the ancient Spanish Calpe studs; which 
last retained the name of Ginetas, because they were smaller and 
fit only for light-armed chivalry. 

African and Barbary blood by crossing with the Gothic, like- 
wise rose in stature, and spread in Navarre to the Garonne. 

These two formed the first well-bred horses in Christian Europe, 
and the gray being most accessible, probably in consequence 
of a farther cross with the Gallician Mountain Race, was soon 
noticed in France by the names of Ferrant, Auferrant and Blanc- 
ferrant, as they were of different shades of color." 

However the Percheron may have originated, it is at present a 
race which has been so carefully bred as to become a type (capa- 
ble of transmitting its character to posterity) superior to the Nor- 
man in speed, precocity, beauty, endurance, and probably intelli- 
gence, — all most important points for a breeder to seek. 

To the Norman, German, and Canadian blood, our horses have 
been for many years especially indebted for strength and weight; 
but as the Percheron possesses the good qualities of all these, and 
others which are also desirable, it is evident that our stock may be 
still more improved by careful crossing with this race. 

A number of stallions and mares have been already imported 
into this country, and wherever we have known of their intro- 
duction their popularity has been substantial proof of their i 

One of the best bred stallions that we have seen, was imported 
by John J. Parker, Esq., of Chester County, Pennsylvania, — a 
beautiful dapple gray, with remarkable action for his weight. 

Probably many farmers expecting to raise from scanty lnw-bred 
mares, colts as fine as the Percheron sire, will, from the result Q? 
48 



566 THE HORSE. 

their own ignorance of nature's laws, condemn the use of very 
large stallions. 

Experience has shown that the small Arab horse, crossed with 
a mare of fair size and good physical development, will produce 
horses larger than either parent, provided the colts are generously 
fed and well cared for until maturity ; there being apparently a 
tendency in the Arabian blood to reassume an aboriginal condition, 
which it had lost through influences bearing upon it for ages un- 
favorable to great development of structure. 

In the formation of such a race as the Percheron, the Eastern 
blood has imparted a limited amount of nerve-power to the cold 
lymphatic temperament of the North j that is, the cross does not 
contain as much of vigor as the Eastern element, but is modified 
by the mixture, hence it cannot bear much deterioration. 

We must, therefore, remember that in using large stallions of 
this character with mares deficient in nerve and physical power, 
we supply too little stamina for the increased structural develop- 
ment of the progeny, the dam having barely sufficient for its own 
scanty organism, and the sire none to spare. 

A long-continued course of such breeding will inevitably pro- 
duce long-legged horses with weak lungs and insufficient consti- 
tution, devoid of beauty, and a disgrace to the breeder. Such a 
stock can only be improved by more Eastern blood. 

But by selecting mares of good size, and pretty well-bred (of 
which we have plenty), carefully attending to results, and making- 
available " good hits " with a view to permanent improvement, 
these Percheron horses will undoubtedly be a great acquisition to 
our country, and their importation should be encouraged. 

The war now devastating France, which will probably change 
the geographical features of the country, will also have its effect 
upon the equine race of that section of Europe. German stock 
will be left in Perche, and Percheron stock will be carried to Ger- 
many. What particular characteristics will be developed in the 
future generations of the horses of La Perche must be left to the 
eccentricities of humanity. 



INDEX. 



Abdallah, history of, 472 ; as a stal- 
lion, 473; inbred, 490, 491. 

Abd el Kader, on the Arab horse, 40 ; 
on the influence of the sire and dam 
respectively in breeding, 110. 

Abdomen, boundaries of the, 278; con- 
tents of the, 279. 

Abdominal viscera, diseases of the, 350. 

Abyssinia, the horses of, 32. 

Accidents to the legs and feet, 413. 

Action, locomotive, of the various parts, 
76. 

Administration of chloroform, 432; of 
physic, 446. 

Africa, South, the horses of, 32. 

Age, shown by the dental system, 
258 ; average, 28 ; best to breed from, 
109. 

Ali Bey, his description of the modern 
Arab, 33. 

Alice Carncal, 55. 

Alice Hawthorne (English thorough- 
bred), 58. 

Alimentary canal, absorption of fluid 
from, 2S0. 

Alteratives, action of, 448 ; recipes for, 
44S. 

Amaurosis, nature of, 3S7; symptoms 
of, 387 ; treatment of, 387. 

Amble, description of the, 95. 

America, South, the horses of, 45. 

American Eagle (trotter), 49. 

American Eclipse (thorough-bred), 
pedigree of, 474 ; influence of upon 
trotting stock, 474, 493. 

American Star (Seeley's), denription 



of, 482 ; pedigree of, 482 ; as a stal- 
lion, 482. 

American thorough-bred, the, 52; 
stoutness of the, 54. 

American trotter, the, 50 ; essay on the, 
467 et seq. 

Americus (trotter), 474. 

Anasarca, symptoms and treatment of, 
419. 

Anchylosis, nature of, 298. 

Ancient methods of using the horse, 17. 

Andrew Jackson (trotter), by Young 
Bashaw, as a stallion, 481. 

Anodynes, action of, 449 ; recipes for, 
449. 

Antiquity, the Arab of, 16. 

Antiseptics, 450 ; recipes for, 450. 

Anti-Zumins, 451 ; recipes for, 451. 

Aperients, action of, 451 ; recipes for, 
452. 

Apoplexy, nature of, 3S0; treatment of, 
380. 

Apparatus for breaking to harness. 152. 

Arab horse, the, color of, 37; disposi- 
tion of, 36 ; food of, 36 : of antiquity, 
1 6 ; the modern, 33 ; size of, 35 : speed 
of, 37 ; Abd el Kader's description of 
the modern, 40 ; Ali Bey's description 
of the modern, 33 ; Capt. Shakspear's 
description of the modern, 37 ; the 
mare, 40. 

Archer (an English trotter), 470. 

Ariel (thorough-bred), 472. 

Arsenic, the effects of, 352; treatment 
of the effects of, 353. 

Arteries of the foot, the, 295 ; of tho 

(567) 



568 



INDEX. 



foot, view of, injected, 294; of the 

frog and sole, view of, injected, 295. 
Asiatic horses, the, 42. 
Astringents, action of, 453 ; recipes for, 

453." 
Atavism, principles of, 486. 
Atmospheric air, changes produced in 

by respiration, 277. 
Attitude assumed in standing, 78. 
Australian horse, the, 44. 
Average age, 28. 



Back and loins, symptoms of strains 
in, 316; treatment of strain in, 317. 

Back-raking, mode of performing, 447. 

Back-sinews, strain of the, 319 ; symp- 
toms of, 319 ; treatment of, 320. 

Bail, the, hanging, 168; gangway, 170. 

Balanitis, symptoms of, 373 ; treatment 
of, 374. 

Bandages, use and application of, 196. 

Barb, the, 30. 

Barbs, treatment of, 352. 

Barnacles, 435. 

Bashaw (Grand) imported Arabian stal- 
lion, influence of upon trotting stock, 
474. 

Bashaw (Green's), as a stallion, 482; 
pedigree of, 482, 509. 

Bashaw (Young), 474; as a stallion, 
481. 

Bath, the Turkish, 213 ; ground plan 
of, 214. 

Baucher's method of horse-breaking, 
145. 

Bay Chief, by Mambrino Chief, 483. 

Bellfounder (imp.), description of, 473; 
history of, 473 ; influence of upon 
trotting stock, 473 ; reputation as a 
stallion, 473. 

Bellringer, by Mambrino" Pilot, 484. 

Bengal, the horses of, 43. 

Berenger, his description of the Barb, 
30. 

Big-head, nature and symptoms of, 308. 

Billy Boyce (pacer), 479 ; pedigree of, 
480, 523 ; performances of, 504. 

Birmah, the horses of, 44. 

Bishoping, 264. 

Bit used for horse-breaking, 143. 

Bites of insects, treatment of, 392. 

Biting, remedy for the vice, 206. 



Black Hawk (Hill's, also called Ver- 
mont), 49, 476,477; influence upon 
trotting stock, 476 ; as a stallion, 
477. 

Black Hawk (Long Island), 481; as a 
stallion, 482. 

Blacking, recipes for harness, 230. 

Bladder, anatomy of the, 284 ; calculi 
in, 373; diseases of, 372; inflamma- 
tion of, 372. 

Bleeding, 435; instruments used in, 
436 ; quantity of blood taken in, 437 ; 
inflammation of the vein, when per- 
formed, 437. 

Blindness, caused by various diseases, 
385. 

Blink Bonny (an English thorough- 
bred), external formation of, 62. 

Blistering, 440. 

Blisters, action of, 454; recipes for, 454. 

Blood, the, 273 ; circulation of the, 274 : 
purity of in the thorough-bred, 60 ; 
spavin, (see Bog Spavin). 

Blood-vessels of the chest and nose, 
diseases of the, 349. 

Bog spavin, nature of, 313 ; symptoms 
of, 313 ; treatment of, 313. 

Bone, diseases of, 297 ; office of, 249 ; 
structure of, 248; fracture of the 
canna, 310; strain of the round, 322. 

Bone-spavin, nature of, 302 ; symptoms 
of, 303 : treatment of, 303. 

Bones, number of, composing the skele- 
ton, 252. 

Bornou, the horses of, 32. 

Boston, pedigree of, 103 ; stoutness of, 
53. 

Boston Blue (trotter), 470, 504. 

Bots, 355 ; group of, attached to the 
stomach, 356. 

Bowels, calculi in the, 365 ; nature of 
inflammation of the, 357 ; symptoms 
of inflammation of the, 359; treat- 
ment of inflammation of the, 359. 

Break, or trevis, the, 435. 

Breaking, Rarey's principles and prac- 
tice, 128; Rarey's apparatus, 130; 
for the saddle, ordinary method, 1! 1 ; 
Baucher's method, 145 ; superiority 
of the ordinary method, 151 ; to har- 
ness, 151. 

Breaking down, 321 ; symptoms of, 
321; treatment of, 321. 



INDEX. 



569 



Breathing,, essence of, 277 ; physiology 
of, 277. 

Breed of race-horses, object of encour- 
aging the, 58. 

Breeding, atavism, or breeding back, 
486 ; best age for, 109 ; causes of a 
hit in, 106 ; choice of sire and dam 
in, 113, 486 j condition of parent at 
time of conception, 499; in-and-in, 
103, 490 j importance of health and 
soundness in, 107, 486; influence of 
the sire and dam respectively, 110, 

, 486; out crossing, 104; principles 
of, 99, 487 et seq. ; kind of horse most 
profitable for, 116 ; theory of genera- 
tion, 99, 494. 

Breeding-back, 486. 

Bright Phoebus (thorough-bred), 472. 

Brignoli (trotter), by Mambrino Chief, 
484. 

British horse, the original, 17. 

Broken knee, treatment of, 324. 

Broken wind, nature of, 346 ; symptoms 
of, 346 ; treatment of, 347. 

Bronchitis, nature of, 329 ; symptoms 
of, 329 ; treatment of, 330 ; treatment 
of chronic, 330. 

Brood mare, the, 117; after treatment 
of the foal, 127; early treatment of 
the foal, 125 ; general management 
Of, 122 ; hovel for, 119 ; paddoek for, 
118; time of sending to the horse, 
123; treatment of the, when in foal, 
123 ; treatment of the, after foaling, 
125 ; weaning of the foal, 127. 

Bruce, his description of the horse of 
Dongola, 32. 

Brunette (trotter), 476, 505. 

Bruno (trotter), 476. 

Buck eye, nature of, 387. 

Burden's horse shoe manufactory, de- 
scription of, 430. 

Bursae mucosae, anatomy of, 271; in- 
flammation in, 314. 

Butterfly '^English thorough-bred), 61. 

Calculi, in the bowels, nature of, 365 ; 
urinary, 373; symptoms of urinary, 
373 ; treatment of urinary, 373. 

Canadian horse, the, 47, 475, 476 ; por- 
trait of, 47 ; influence of upon trot- 
ting stock, 476. 
48* 



Canker, nature of, 403; treatment of, 
403. 

Canna bone, fractures of, 310. 

Cannucks (see Canadian horse), 475. 

Canter, the, 89 ; mode of starting into 
a, 238. 

Capped elbow, treatment of, 316 ; hock, 
cause of, 315 ; treatment of, 315. 

Capulet (see Capped Elbow). 

Carbolic acid, description of, 450. 

Caries, nature of, 29S; of the jaw, 
symptoms of, 307; treatment of, 308. 

Cart-horse, the Vermont, 55. 

Cartilage, 266 ; diseases of, 312 ; struc- 
ture and composition of, 267 ; ulcera- 
tion of, 312. 

Cartilages, ossification of the lateral, 
301; symptoms of, 301; treatment 
of, 302. 

Cassius M. Clay (trotter), reputation 
of as a stallion, 481, 482. 

Casting, method of, 432 ; for operations 
upon the fore leg, 434 ; for castra- 
tion, 434. 

Castration, 441 ; method of casting for, 
434 ; operation for, 441. 

Cataract, naturo and causes of, 3S6. 

Catarrh, nature of, 327 ; treatment of, 
327. 

Catchpit, section of, 163. 

Caustics, action of, 455 ; recipes for, 455. 

Cauteries (see Caustics). 

Cayuga Chief, (trotter), 479. 

Cerebro-spinal meningitis, nature of, 
328, 376, 418; symptoms of, 418; 
treatment of, 419. 

Chaban, an Arabian stallion, portrait 
of, 35. 

Chanticleer (English thorough-bred), 
75. 

Chapped Heels, symptoms of, 394; 
treatment of, 394. 

Chest, diseases of the blood-vessels of, 
349 ; water on the, 345. 

Choking, distemper (see Cerebro-spinal 
meningitis). 

Chillaby, an Arab horse, 36. 

China, the horse of, 44. 

Chloroform, apparatus for administer- 
ing, 432 ; mode of administration, 
432. 

Chronic cough, 331 ; symptoms of, 331 ; 
treatment, 331. 



570 



INDEX. 



Chyle, the, 280. 

Circulation, plan of the, 275. 

Clipping, 189. 

Clothes, tearing off the, 204; remedy 
for, 205. 

Clubs, trotting, establishment of, 470. 

Clysters, mode of administering, 447; 
action of, 456 ; recipe for, 456. 

Coach-house, 174. 

Coat of the thorough-bred, 75. 

Coffin-joint, strains of the, 318. 

Cold, nature of, 327 ; treatment of, 327. 

Colic, nature of, 360 ; symptoms of, 
360; flatulent, signs of, 361; from 
stoppage, symptoms of, 361 ; signs 
of spasmodic, 361 ; treatment of, 
361 ; treatment of flatulent, 362 ; 
treatment of impaction, 362; treat- 
ment required after, 362 ; remedies 
for, 452. 

Color, of the Arab horse, 37; of the 
thorough-bred, 75. 

Colt, breaking of the, 128. 

Commander, by Messenger, influence 
of upon trotting stock, 472. 

Conestoga draught-horse, the, 55; por- 
trait of, 56. 

Confining the horse, methods of, 433. 

Congestion of the lungs, nature and 
cause of, 339; symptoms of, 341; 
treatment of, 342. 

Constitutional diseases, 417. 

Consumption (phthisis), symptoms of, 
346; treatment of, 346. 

Contraction of the foot, 409 ; of the 
heels, 430. 

Convulsions, symptoms of, 375 ; treat- 
ment of, 376. 

Corbeau (trotter), character of as a 
stallion, 480; pedigree of, 480. 

Cord, spinal, the source of power of 
moving, 497. 

Corns, nature of, 397 ; treatment of, 397. 

Coronary frog-band, the, 293. 

Coronary substance, anatomy of the, 
293. 

Corrosive sublimate, treatment of effects 
of, 353. 

Cough, nature of chronic, 331 ; symp- 
toms of chronic, 331 ; treatment of 
chronic, 331. 

Counter-irritants, 454. 

Coup de soleil, treatment of, 382. 



Crao (imp.), 53. 

Cranston (trotter), by Mambrino Pilot, 
484. 

Crib-biting, 202; bar-muzzle for, 203. 

Cruiser, 36, 128, !l31 ; in the power of 
his master, 133 ; with the leg-strap 
and surcingle on, 132. 

Crust of the foot, anatomy of the, 292. 

Curb, nature of, 322 ; treatment of, 323. 

Cushion of the frog, 293. 

Cuts, stable management of simple, 
222; contused, 222. 

Cutting, ordinary, 413 ; description of 
speedy, 415; prevention of, 415: 
treatment of ordinary, 413; treat- 
ment of speedy, 415. 

Cystitis, symptoms of, 372; treatment 
of, 372. 



Daily exercise, 200. 

Dart (trotter), 479. 

Deafness, 383. 

Depuration, its office in the animal 
economy, 281. 

Detergents, 456; recipes for, 456. 

Dexter (trotter), performances of, 50, 
504, 505 ; pedigree of, 473, 480-2, 513. 

Dgelfe, a breed of Arab horse, 33. 

Diabetes, symptoms of, 371; treatment 
of, 371; remedies for, 453. 

Diaphragm, symptoms of spasm of, 
348 ; treatment of spasm of, 34S. 

Diarrhoea, nature of, 362 ; treatment of, 
363; medicines for chronic, 450 ; clys- 
ter for, 459 ; remedies for, 452, 456. 

Digestion, physiology of, 280. 

Diomed (imp.), 474, 492; influence 
of upon trotting stock, 474. 

Dishing, in the trot, 88. 

Dislocation, nature of, 324; of the hip 
joint, 324; of the patella, 324. 

Distemper, nature of, 328 ; treatment 
of, 329 ; choking, 376, 418. 

Diuretics, action of, 457 ; recipes for, 
457. 

Docking, operation for, 444. 

Dongola, the horses of, 32. 

Door for loose box, 161. 

Doors of stables, materials for, 161. 

Drainage of stables, 163. 

Draught-horse, the Conestoga, 55 ; por- 
trait of, 56. 



INDEX. 



571 



Dressing of horses before work, 183 ; 

after work, 186. 
Duct, the thoracic, 280. 
Ducts, the lacrymal, 2S9. 
Duroc (thorough-bred) 474, 483. 
Dysentery, nature of 362; treatment 

of, 362; remedies for, 453. 
Dyspepsia, nature of, 354; symptoms 

of, 354; treatment of, 355. 



Ear, anatomy of the, 289 ; diseases of, 
383 ; scratching the, remedy for, 
204. 

Early maturity of the thorough-bred, 
57. 

East, the horses of the, 30. 

Eclipse (American thorough-bred), in- 
fluence upon trotting stock, 474. 

Eclipse (English thorough-bred), de- 
scription of, 27; Percival's descrip- 
tion of, 28. 

Ecraseur, the, 443. 

Egyptian horse, the ancient, 16; the 
modern, 32. 

Elbow-joint, treatment of capped, 316. 

Embrocations, action of, 457; recipes 
for, 457. 

Engineer, by Messenger, 472. 

Enteritis, nature of, 357; symptoms of, 
358. 

Epilepsy, symptoms of, 375 ; treatment 
of, 376. 

Ericsson (trotter), by Mambrino Chief, 
483, 484. 

Eruptions of the skin, 388 et seq. 

Essentials in the thorough-bred, 60. 

Ethan Allen (trotter), 49, 482, 505. 

Excretion, physiology of, 281. 

Exercise, daily, 200. 

Exhaustion, after work, treatment of, 
221. 

Exostosis, nature of, 297 ; of the hu- 
merus and scapula, treatment of, 305. 

External form as indicated by points, 
19 ; formation of the thorough-bred, 
61. 

Extremities, anatomy of the anterior, 
254; of the hind, 253; considered as 
organs of support, 255; of locomo- 
tion, 256. 

Eye, anatomy of the, 287 ; appen ages 



of, 289 ; simple inflammation of, 3S3 ; 
symptoms of simple inflammation of, 
287; treatment of simple inflamma- 
tion of, 384; treatment of purulent 
ophthalmia, 3S4 ; irites, 384; injuries 
of, 386 ; treatment of injuries, 3S6 ; 
cataract, 3S6 ; amaurosis, 387; buck- 
eye, 387 ; wash fcr the, 459. 



Face, anatomy of the, 254. 

Fair Rachel (thorough-bred), 472. 

False quarter, nature of, 399 ; treat- 
ment of, 400. 

Farcy, symptoms of, 421 ; treatment 
of, 421 ; remedies for, 451. 

Fearnought (imp.), 53. 

Febrifuges, action of, 458 ; recipes for, 
458. 

Feeding, theory and practice of, 177. 

Feeling, 290. 

Feet, accidents to the, 413 ; manage- 
ment of, 197 ; dryness of the, 198. 

Femur, treatment of fracture of the, 
310. 

Fetlock, remarks on the strain of the, 
318 ; treatment of the strain of the, 
318. 

Fevers, remarks on, 417 ; symptoms of 
simple, 417; symptoms of typhoid, 
417 ; treatment of simple, 417 ; treat- 
ment of typhoid, 41S. 

Fever balls and powders, 458. 

Fibre, muscular, 270. 

Fibrous tissue, nature of, 268; chemi- 
cal composition of, 2G9. 

Firing, method of performing, 43S ; 
remarks on, 437. 

Fisherman (English thorough-bred), 
portrait of, 62. 

Fistula of the withers, nature of, 306 ; 
symptoms of, 306 ; treatment of, 306. 

Flatbush Maid (trotter), 480. 

Flatulent colic, symptoms of, 361 ; 
treatment of, 362. 

Flora Temple (trotter), 50, 489, 490, 
504, 505 ; portrait of, 4S9. 

Flying gallop, the, 92. 

Foal, the, 125 ; after treatment of the, 
127 ; early treatment of the, 125 ; 
weaning of the, 127. 

Foals, rheumatic inflammation peculiai 



572 



INDEX. 



to, 313 ; treatment of rheumatic in- 
flammation of, 314. 

Foot, anatomy of the, 290 ,• lateral car- 
tilages of, 296 ; section of, 291 ; the 
parts entering into the composition 
of, 290 ; view of the under surface of, 
292 ; with the hoof removed, view of 
the, 292 ; contraction of the, 409, 
430 ; the hoof, 292; the arteries of, 
295 ; founder of the, 403 ; conditions 
of a good sound, 425. 

Fore-quarters, relative proportions of 
the,"21. 

Formation, external, of the horse, 61. 

Founder of the foot, 403. 

Fractures, remarks on, 308 ; simple, 
309; treatment of simple, 310; of 
the femur, 310 ; treatment of, 310 ; 
of the humerus, 310 ; treatment of, 
310 ; of the canna bones, 310 ; treat- 
ment of, 310 ; of the lower jaw, 310 ; 
treatment of, 310 ; of the pelvis, 310 ; 
treatment of, 310 ; of the pasterns, 
310 ; treatment of, 310 ; of the bones 
of the skull, 310 ; treatment of, 310 ; 
of the radius, 310 ; treatment of, 310; 
of the ribs, 310 ; treatment of, 310 ; 
of the scapula, 310 ; treatment of, 
310 ; of the spine, 310 ; treatment of, 
310 ; of the tibia, 310 ; treatment of, 
310. 

Frog, anatomy of the, 293. 



Gad-fly, bites of the, 392; treatment 
for, 392. 

Gallop, the flying, 92 ; variation on 
length of stride of, 95; correct view 
of the 94 ; received interpretation of 
the, 91 ; the hand, 90 ; the extended, 
91 ; method of starting to the, 239. 

Galls, treatment of harness, 391 ; rem- 
edy for, 459. 

Gangway, bail for stable, 170. 

Gastritis, rarity of, 352 ; symptoms of, 
352 ; treatment of, 352. 

General characteristics of the horse, 18. 

Generation, anatomy of the female 
organs of, 286 ; anatomy of the male 
organs of, 285 ; theory of, 99, 494. 

Generative cvrgans, diseases of the, 
373. 

George M. Patcheu (trotter), reputa- 



tion of as a stallion, 481 ; pedigree 
of, 512. 

George Palmer (trotter , 504. 

George Wilkes (trotter), 473, £81, 504. 

Gift (trotter), 474, 484. 

Gland, the kidneys, 284; the liver, 283; 
the pancreas, 284. 

Glands, structure of the, 280. 

Glanders, symptoms of, 420 ; treatment 
of, 421 ; remedies for, 451. 

Glencoe (imp.), 474. 

Godolphin Arabian, history of, 31. 

Golddust (trotter), 483; pedigree of, 
493, 510. 

Goldsmith's Maid (trotter), 504; pedi- 
gree of, 517. 

Granary, construction of, 160. 

Grand Bashaw (imp.), influence of upon 
trotting stock, 474 

Grass, turning out to, 225. 

Grease (Scratches), symptoms of, 394; 
treatment of, 395. 

Green's Bashaw, reputation as a stal- 
lion, 482, 483 ; pedigree of, 509. 

Greek horse, the ancient, 14. 

Grooming, after work, 184 ; before 
work, 186. 

Grubs, removal of, 392. 



Habits in a wild or free state, 18; 
out-door bad, 243 ; remedies for bad, 
202. 

Hacks, preparation of for work, 220. 

Hematuria, causes of, 371 ; symptoms 
of, 371; treatment of, 371. 

Hemorrhage, from the lungs, treatment 
of, 349; from the nose, treatment of, 
349. 

Halters used for breaking eolts, 142. 

Hambletonian (Harris'), 480. 

Hambletonian (Rysdyk's), thorough- 
bred, 490; character of as a stallion, 
481 ; closely in-bred, 490 ; pedigree 
of, 507. 

Hambletonian (thorough-bred), by 
Messenger, 472 ; influence of upon 
trotting stock, 472. 

Hand-gallop, the, 90. 

Harness, blacking, recipes for, 230 ; 
breaking to, 151 ; care of, 229 ; direc- 
tion for cleaning, 22J ; fittings for, 
173 ; room in stables, '.78 ; galls, 391. 



INDEX. 



573 



Havoc (thorough-bred), 4S3. 

Hay, chamber, 159. 

Head, bones of the, 254; relative pro- 
portions of the, 19. 

Health, importance of in sire and dam, 
107, 486; upland grass useful in re- 
storing, 226. 

Heart, diseases of the, 348. 

Heels, symptoms of chapped, 394; 
treatment of chapped, 394; treat- 
ment of contracted, 430; remedies 
for sore, 454. 

Height of the thorough-bred, 75. 

Henry Clay (trotter), by Long Island 
Black Hawk, 481, 482; character of 
as a stallion, 482. 

Hepatization of the lungs, 340. 

Herbert's description of wild horse of 
America, 46. 

Hernia, reduction of, 445. 

Hero (pacer), 479, 480. 

Hidebound, nature of, 389; symptoms 
of, 3S9; treatment of, 389. 

Highblowing, nature of, 338. 

Highland Ash (trotter), 4S0 ; pedigree, 
520. 

Highland Lass (trotter), 480. 

Highland Maid (trotter), 480, 504. 

Hill's Black Hawk, 476; character of 
as a stallion, 476 ; pedigree, 476. 

Hind quarters, points of the, 25. 

Hip-joint, dislocation of the, 324 ; 
strain of the, 322. 

Hiram Woodruff (trotter), 482. 

"Hit," causes of a, 106. 

Hobbles, description of, and method of 
using, 433. 

Hobgobblin, 31. 

Hock, cause of capped, 315 ; treatment 
of capped, 315; treatment of strain 
of the, 322. 

Hock-joint, strain of the, 322. 

Hogging the mane, 194. 

Hoof, anatomy of the, 291 ; develop- 
ment of by secretion, 293 ; view of 
the, 292. 

Horsemanship, Baucher's method of, 
150. 

Hounds, riding to, 240. 

Hovel, the, for the brood mare, 119. 

Hughes, Mr., tames the Arabian stal- 
lion Chillaby 36. 

HumeruSj and scapula, exostosis cf, 



305; and scapula, treatment of exos- 
tosis of, 305 ; treatment of fracture 
of, 310. 

Hunter, final preparation of the, 219 ; 
preparation of the, 206 ; treatment 
of blows on the legs of the, 221,- 
treatment of exhaustion of the, 221; 
treatment of overreach of the, 222 ; 
treatment of thorns in the legs of the, 
221. 

Hunting Park Association, established, 
470. 

Hydrophobia, nature of, 377 ; symptoms 
of, 377 ; treatment of, 378. 

Hydrothorax, a sequel of pleurisy, 345; 
treatment of, 345. 



In-and-in breeding, 103, 490 et seq. 

Incisor teeth, section of, 257. 

Independent (trotter), 480. 

India, horses of, 43. 

Indian pony, the, 46. 

Indigestion (dyspepsia), causes of, 354; 

treatment of, 354. 
Inflamed bursa; mucosa;, 314; of ten- 

derous sheath, 314. 
Inflammation of the bones, 298 ; of 

bursas mucosa;, 314; of the bladder, 

372 ; of the bowels, 357 ; of the brain, 

375; of the bronchi, 329; of the eye, 

383; of the kidneys, 369; of the 

laryngitis, 332; of the lungs, 339; 

of the pleura, 345 ; of the stomach, 

352 ; of the vein after bleeding, 437 ; 

rheumatic, 311 ; wash for external, 

459. 
Influenza, nature of, 328 ; symptoms o£ 

328 ; treatment of, 328 ; typhoid, 

symptoms in, 329. 
Injections (see Clysters). 
Insects, treatment of bites and stings 

of, 392. 
Intersusception, nature and symptoms 

of, 364. 
Intestines, anatomy of the, 2S2; large, 

2S3 ; small, 282. 
Inversion of the uterus, 374. 
Iritis, cause of, 384 ; symptoms of, 385; 

treatment of, 385. 
Iron fitting for stalls and loose boxes, 

172. 



574 



INDEX. 



James K. Polk (pacer), 479. 

Java, the horse of, 44. 

Jaw, caries of, 307; symptoms of caries 
of, 308 ; treatment of, 308 ; fracture 
of the bones of, 310 ; osteo sarcoma 
of, 308. 

Jenny Cameron (imp.), 53. 

Jim Rockey (trotter), 483. 

Jog-trot, the, 236. 

John Anderson (trotter), 480. 

John Henry, failure as a stallion, 485. 

John Morgan (trotter), 480, 483; pedi- 
gree of, 475, 483, 516. 

John Stewart (trotter), 479, 483, 505. 

Joint, strain of the coffin, 318 ; treat- 
ment of strain of the coffin, 318 ; 
strains of the hip, 322 ; treatment of, 
322 ; dislocation of the hip, treatment 
of, 324. 

Joints, remarks on the, 266 ; wounds 
of, 324. 

Jolly Roger (imp.), 53. 

Jugular vein, when obliterated, renders 
the horse unfit to be turned out, 227. 

Jumping, 96. 

Justin Morgan, 476, 482. 



Kailhan, a breed of Arab horses, 34. 

Kate (trotter), 506. 

Kemble Jackson (trotter), pedigree of, 
480, 518. 

Kentucky, by Lexington, (thorough- 
bred), 55. 

Kentucky Chief (trotter), 483. 

Kentucky Clay (trotter), 482. 

Kicking, out of doors, prevention of, 
245; in the stable, 203, 206. 

Kidneys, diseases of the, 369 ; inflam- 
mation of the, 369 ; inaction of, 372 ; 
situation of the, 284. 

Knee-joint, remarks on the strain of 
the, 317 ; symptoms of strain of the, 
318; treatment of punctured, 326; 
treatment of strain of the, 318 ; bro- 
ken, 324 ; wounds of the, 324. 

Kochlani, a breed of Arab horses, tra- 
dition of the, 34. 



Lacrymal apparatus, anatomy of, 289. 

Lacteals, the, 280 

Lady Franklin (trotter), 504, 505. 



Lady Fulton (trotter), 505. 

Lady Palmer and Flatbush Maid (trot- 
ters), 505. 

Lady Suffolk (trotter), 474, 479, 504, 
505 ; pedigree of, 514. 

Lady Thorn (trotter), 472, 4S0, 483, 
504 ; pedigree of, 515. 

Lameness, shoulder joint, 305. 

Laminae, anatomy of the, 294. 

Laminitis, nature of, 403 ; section of a 
foot in confirmed, 405 ; symptoms of, 
405 ; treatment of acute, 405 ; treat- 
ment of chronic, 409. 

Lamp for singeing, 193. 

Lampas, symptoms of, 351 ; treatment 
of, 351. 

Lamplighter (pacer), 504. 

Lantern (trotter), 481 ; performance 
with Whalebone, 405. 

Laryngitis, nature of, 322 ; symptoms 
of acute, 332; symptoms of chronic, 
333 ; treatment of acute, 333 ; treat- 
ment of chronic, 334. 

Lateral cartilages, ossification of, 301 ; 
symptoms of ossification of, 301 ; 
treatment of ossification of, 302. 

Lath (thorough-bred), 31. 

Leaping, 96. 

Lecompte (thorough-bred), stoutness 
of, 55. 

Legs, accidents to, 413 ; inflammatory 
swelled, 393; ordinary swelled, 393; 
lotion for inflamed, 459. 

Lexington (thorough-bred), shape of, 
54 ; stoutness of, 53 ; as a getter of 
trotters, 489. 

Libyan horse, the ancient, 17. 

Lice, destruction of, 391. 

Ligaments, 268 ; diseases of, 311 ; 
strains of the suspensory, 318. 

Lighting of stables, 165. 

Lightning (trotter), 481. 

Limbs, as agents of locomotion, 256; 
as means of support, 255. 

Liniments, action of, 457 ; recipes for, 
457. 

List of English stallions imported into 
America, 461. 

Litter, remedy for eating the, 205. 

Liver, anatomy and function of the, 
283; disease of the, 369; symp- 
toms of disease of the, 369 ; treat- 
ment of disease of the, 369. 



INDEX. 



575 



Lock-jaw, naturo of, 378 ; symptoms 
of, 377 j treatment of, 378. 

Loins, strains of the, 316; treatment 
of strains of the, 316. 

Lone Star (trotter), 482. 

Long Island Black Hawk, 481 ; repu- 
tation as a stallion, 481, 482. 

Loose boxes, remarks on, 157. 

Lotions, action of, 459; recipes for, 
459. 

Lower jaw, treatment of fractures of 
the, 310. 

Lucy (trotter), 4S1, 504; pedigree of 
of, 481, 519. 

Lungs, remarks on congestion of the, 
340 ; symptoms of congestion of the, 
340 ; treatment of congestion of the, 
341 ; inflammation of (pneumonia), 
339 ; treatment of haemorrhage from 
the, 349. 

Lying down at work, 245. 



Madness, nature of, 377; symptoms 
of, 377 ; treatment of, 378. 

Mad staggers, nature of, 375 ; symp- 
toms of, 375 ; treatment of, 375. 

Mahomet, the traditional founder of the 
Kochlani, 34. 

Major Winfield, by Rysdyk's Hamble- 
tonian, 481. 

Malcom, Sir John, his description of 
the Persian horse, 41. 

Mallenders, symptoms of, 391 ; treat- 
ment of, 391. 

Mambrino (thorough-bred), description 
of, 472 ; influence upon trotting stock, 
472, 483. 

Mambrino Chief, 472, 483; character as 
a stallion, 483 ; pedigree of, 483. 

Mambrino Messenger (trotter), 484. 

Mambrino Patchen, by Mambrino 
Chief, 483, 484. 

Mambrino Paymaster, by Mambrino, 
472, 483. 

Mambrino Pilot, description of, 484 ; 
pedigree of, 472, 480, 483, 484, 508 ; 
character as a stallion, 484. 

Mane, of the race horse, the, 76 ; hog- 
ging the, 194. 

Manege, paces of the, 96. 

Mange, insect, 389; nature of, 389 ; 
symptoms of, 389 ; treatment of, 390. 



Mangers for stables, 170 ; material for, 
171. 

Mare, management of the brood, 122 
after treatment of the foal of, 127 
choosing the, for breeding, 489 
early treatment of the foal of, 125 
hovel for, 119 ; paddock for, 118 
time of sending to the horse, 123 
treatment of after foaling, 125 ; treat- 
ment of when in foal, 123 ; weaning 
of the foal of, 127; the Arab, 40. 

Margrave (imp.), 474. 

Marrow, the, 250. 

Match, trotting, first on record in Eng- 
land, 469 ; first on record in Ame- 
rica, 470. 

Maturity of the horse, 28. 

Medicines, list of the principal, and 
recipes for, 448; alteratives, 448; 
anodynes, 449; antiseptics, 450; 
anti-zumins, 451; aperients, 451; 
astringents, 453; blisters, 454; caus- 
tics, 455; clysters, 456; detergents, 
456 ; diuretics, 457-; embrocations, 
457; febrifuges, 458; lotions, 459; 
stimulants, 459 ; stomachics, 460 ; 
tonics, 460 ; traumatics, 460 ; ver- 
mifuges, 461. 

Mefki, a breed of Arab horse, 33. 

Megrims, nature of, 376 ; symptoms of, 
376 ; treatment of, 376. 

Membrane, synovial, acute inflamma- 
tion of the, 313 ; rheumatic inflam- 
mation of, 313; treatment of rheu- 
matic inflammation of the, 313. 

Meningitis, cerebro-spinal, nature cf, 
376,418; symptoms of, 418; treat- 
ment of, 419. 

Mental development, 29. 

Messenger (imp.), description of, 471 
influence upon trotting stock, 471 
472, 477 ; character as a stallion, 471 
his progeny in-bred, 492. 

Methods of using the horse, ancient, 17. 

Middlepiece of the horse, proportions 
of, 23. 

Miller's Damsel (thorough -bred), 474, 
483. 

Miss Colville (imp.), 53. 

Mode of progression in horses, 78. 

Modern Arab, the, 33; Ali Bey's de- 
cription of, 33; size, 35; docility of, 
36 ; food of, 36 ; color of, 37 ; speed 



576 



INDEX. 



of, 37 ; Capt. Shakspear's description 
of, 37 ; the mare, 40. 

Molten grease, treatment of, 364. 

Monkey (imp.), 53. 

Moor-ill, symptoms of, 419 ; treatment 
of, 419. 

Moorish horse, the, 17. 

Morgan horse the, 48, 482; Linsley's 
description of the, 48. 

Morrill, pedigree of, 482. 

Morrill (Young), influence upon trot- 
ting stock, 482 ; pedigree of, 482, 493, 
511. 

Moulting, periodical, 29. 

Mountain Boy (trotter), 473, 481 ; pedi- 
gree of, 521. 

Mountain Maid (trotter), 482. 

Mount Holly, by Messenger, 472. 

Mounting, directions for, 230 ; Rarey's 
directions for, 232; Richardson's di- 
rections for, 230. 

Mouth, the three-year old, 259 ; the 
six-year old, 263; the five-year old, 
261* the four-year old, 260 ; the three- 
year old, 259 ; the two-year old, 259 ; 
the eight-year old, 263; of the very 
old horse, 264; diseases of the, 350. 

Mucosae, Bursae, anatomy of, 271; in- 
flamed, 314. 

Muscles, anatomy of, 270; diseases of 
the, 311 ; appearance of to the naked 
eye, 270 ; chronic rheumatism of, 312 ; 
identical in composition with the 
fibrine of the blood, 270; mode of 
describing, 271 ; physiology of, 269 ; 
diseases of, 311 ; rheumatic inflamma- 
tion of, 311. 

Mustang, horse the, 46. 

Myron Perry (trotter), 504. 



Nancy Pope, by Havoc, 483. 

Narraganset Pacer, the, 52. 

Navicular disease, nature and cause of, 
409, 412; symptoms of, 410; treat- 
ment of, 411. 

Neck, relative proportions of the, 21. 

Nejdi, a breed of Arab horse, 33. 

Nephritis, cause of, 369 ; symptoms of, 
369; treatment of, 370. 

Nerves, the, 286. 

Nervous system, diseases of the, 375. 

Neurotomy, for navicular disease, 412. 



New York trotting club organized, 470. 

Nicking, operation for, 444. 

Nonpareil, by Cassius M. Clay, 482. 

Norfolk trotter, the, 89, 470. 

North America, wild horse of, 46. 

Nose, the, 287; diseases of the blood- 
vessels of the, 349 ; hemorrhage from 
the blood-vessels of the, 349. 

Numidian horse, the, 17. 

Nymphomania, nature and symptoms 
of, 374; treatment of, 374. 



Object of encouraging the breed of 
race-horses, 58. 

(Estrus equi, history of the, 356. 

Oneida Chief (pacer), 479. 

Operations, 432 ; administration of 
chloroform, 432 ; methods of confin- 
ing the horse, 433 ; bleeding, 435 ; 
firing, 437 ; setons and rowels, 439 ; 
blistering, 440 ; castrating, 441 ; 
nicking and docking, 444; unnerv- 
ing, 445; reduction of hernia, 445; 
administration of physic, 446 ; clys- 
ters, 447; back-raking, 447. 

Ophthalmia, symptoms of purulent, 
384 ; treatment of purulent, 484. 

Orange connty horse, the, 504, 506. 

Organs, classification of the various, 
248. 

Original British horse, the, 17. 

Ossification of lateral cartilages, 301 ; 
symptoms of, 301 ; treatment of, 301. 

Osteo sarcoma of the jaw, nature and 
symptoms of, 308. 

Out-crossing in breeding, 104, 491. 

Over-reaches, stable management of, 
222 ; treatment of, 416. 

Ozena, nature of, 328. 



Pacer, the Narraganset, 52. 

Pacers, 479 ; belonging to trotting fam- 
ilies, 480 ; to teach to trot, 478 ; per- 
formances of, 479. 

Paces, natural and acquired, 76 ; modes 
of starting to the various, 235. 

Pacing, nature of, 96 ; close relation- 
ship to trotting, 479. 

Paddock, the, for brood mares, 118. 

Pancreas, anatomy of the, 284, 

Paps, treatment of, 352. 



INDEX. 



577 



Paralysis, natire of, 3S0; from injury 
of the spine, 380 ; symptoms of, 3S1 ; 
treatment of, 381 ; of the par-vagum, 
418. 

Par-vagum, paralysis of the, (see Ty- 
phosus). 

Pastern, fractures of the, 310. 

Pasturing, 225. 

Patella, dislocation of the, 324. 

Paul Pry (trotter), 471. 

Pedigrees, importance of in breeding, 
486 ; tables of, 507-523. 

Peerless (trotter), 480, 482, 504. 

Pelham (trotter), 479. 

Pelvic arch, anatomy of the, 255. 

Pelvis, the, boundaries of, 284; frac- 
tures of, 310. 

Performances of American trotters, ta- 
bles of, 504 et sea. 

Perichondrium in the cartilage, 267. 

Periodical moulting, 29. 

Periosteum, the, 250. 

Peritonitis, nature of, 357 ; symptoms 
of, 359 ; treatment of, 359 ; to distin- 
guish from colic, 360. 

Persian horse, the, 41. 

Pet (trotter), 505. 

Phrenitis, nature of, 375 ; symptoms 
of, 375 ; treatment of, 375. 

Phthisis, symptoms of, 346; treatment 
of, 346. 

Physic, circumstances which modify 
the dose of, 217; cooling powers of 
218; effects of, in getting rid of in- 
jurious food, 217; injurious effects 
of, 219; mode of administering, 446; 
superseded by the Turkish bath as a 
mode of reducing flesh, 218. 

Physic balls and drenches, 459. 

Physiology, of the blood, 273; of diges- 
tion, 280; of muscle, 269; of respira- 
tion, 277; of secretions, 281. 

Pilot (bl. g.), 479. 

Pilot (Canadian), 475; influence of 
upon trotting stock, 475. 

Pilot, Jr. (Alexander's), 479, 4S3 ; in- 
fluence of upon trotting stock, 475. 

Pilot, Old (pacer), 479. 

Pilot Temple, 483. 

Piping, nature of, 338. 

Plato (thorough-bred), influence upon 
trotting stock, 472, 491. 

Pleura, anatomy of the, 272. 



Pleurisy, symptoms of, 345 ; treatment 

of, 345. 
Pleurodynia, nature of, 345 ; treatment 

of, 346. 
Plunging, treatment of, 245. 
Pneumonia, cause of, 340; definition 

of, 339; sub-acute, 344; hepatization 

in, 344; symptoms of acute, 343; 

termination of, 344; treatment of 

acute, 343. 
Pocahontas, Jr. (trotter), 480. 
Pocahontas (pacer), performances of, 

96, 470, 480; pedigree of, 480, 522; 

progeny of, 480. 
Points of the trotter, 495; of the horse, 

20; proportions of the various, 26. 
Poll-evil, nature of, 307; symptoms of, 

307; treatment of, 307. 
Porter, Sir Robert Ker, his description 

of the Persian horse, 41. 
Post Boy (thorough-bred), influence 

upon trotting stock, 493; pedigree 

of, 493. 
Potomac (thorough-bred), 471. 
Preparation, final, of the hunter, 219; 

of the hunter, 206; for work, 206; 

of hacks for work, 220. 
Pricks, from a nail picked up on tho 

road, 416; in shoeing, 416; treat- 
ment of in shoeing, 416; treatment of 

from a nail picked up on the road, 416. 
Prioress (thorough-bred), her staying 

qualities, 54. 
Progression, mode of, 78. 
Proportions of the various points, 26. 
Proud-flesh, in wounds, medicines for 

destroying, 455. 
Puffs, treatment of, 315. 
Purges (See Aperients). 
Purity of blood in tho thorough-bred, 60. 
Purulent opthalmia, symptoms of, 3S4 ; 

treatment of, 384. 
Putrescence in sores and ulcers, medi- 
cines for, 450. 
Putrid fever (See Typhosus). 



Quarter, points of the fore, 21 ; points 
of the hind, 25 ; nature of false, 399 ; 
treatment of false, 400. 

Queen Mab (imp.), 53. 

Quittor, nature of, 400 ; treatment of, 
400. 



49 



2o 



578 



INDEX. 



Rabies, nature and symptoms of, 377. 

Race-horse, croup of the, 65; back of 
the 65 ; back ribs of the, 70 ; belly 
of the 70 ; bone of the leg of the, 73 ; 
coat of the, 75 ; color of the, 75 ; ex- 
ternal formation of the, 61 ; flank of 
the, 70 ; fore-arm, or arm of the, 73 ; 
head of the, 71 ; height of the, 75 ; 
hind quarter or the, 74; knee of the, 
73; loins of the, 65; mane of the, 
76; neck cf the, 70; object of en- 
couraging the breed of, 70; purity 
of blood iu the, 60 ; shoulder blade 
of the, 72 ; tail of the, 76. 

Racing or hunting stable, ground plan 
of, 175. 

Racking, 95. 

Racks for stables, 170 ; material for, 
171. 

Radius, fracture of the, 310. 

Rarey's apparatus for breaking horses, 
130; halter or bridle for colts, 142; 
method of training, 12S ; reflections 
on plans of, 137. 

Rearing, management of, 244. 

Red Jacket, influence of as a stallion, 
474. 

Reduction of hernia, 445. 

Reins, management of, 233. 

Relationship of pacers to trotters, 480. 

Relative influence of sire and dam, 110, 
486. 

Relative proportions of the fore-quar- 
ters, 21 ; of the head, 19 ; of the 
horse, 19 ; of the neck, 21. 

Respiration, effect of on atmospheric 
air, 277; physiology of, 277. 

Retention of urine, treatment of, 373. 

Rheumatic inflammation, 311; peculiar 
to foals, 313. 

Rheumatism, symptoms of acute, 311 ; 
treatment of acute, 312 ; symptoms 
of chronic, 312. 

Rhode Island (trotter), 504. 

Ribs, treatment of fractured, 310. 

Riding, 230 ; to hounds, 240 ; to hcmds, 
rules adopted iu, 240; to hounds, di- 
rections for, 241 ; modes of starting 
the horse in the various paces, 235 ; 
mounting and dismounting, 230; 
management of the reins in, 233 ; 
necessity of good hands in, 238; the 
seat in, 232; starting into a gallop, 



239; starting into a trot in, 236; 
starting into a walk in, 235. 

Ring bone, 300 ; nature of, 300 ; symp- 
toms of, 301 ; treatment of, 301 ; rem- 
edy for, 455. 

Roanoke (pacer), 479. 

Roaring, nature and causes of, 335 ; 
produced by alteration in the shape 
of the cartilages, 337; produced by 
thickening of the mucous membrane, 
335; produced by paralysis of the 
muscles of the larynx, 336; remarks 
on, 335 ; plan for stopping the noise 
made in, 335. 

Rolla Golddust (trotter), 479. 

Roman horse, the, 16. 

Romp (thorough-bred), 479. 

Round worms, 367. 

Rowels, 439. 

Roxana (thorough-bred, English), 31. 

Royal George, 475 ; pedigree of, 475. 

Running, the pace, 96. 

Running away, management of, 245. 

Rupture of the bowels, 364. 

Rysdyk's Hambletonian, pedigree of, 
472, 473, 481, 507; closely inbred, 490. 



Sabi, a breed of Arab horse, 33. 

Saddlery, care of, 227. 

Saladin (trotter), 481. 

Sallenders, symptoms of, 391 ; treat- 
ment of, 391. 

Salt, as food, 180. 

Saltram (pacer), 4S0. 

Sand-crack, nature of, 399; treatment 
of, 399. 

Sarcoma, Osteo, 308. 

Saunterer (an English thorough-bred), 
64 ; portrait of, 64. 

Scapula, exostosis of, 305 ; fractures 
of the, 310 ; strains of the, 310. 

Scratches (Grease), 394 ; nature and 
treatment of, 395. 

Scratching the ear, management of 
204. 

Screwdriver, (trotter), 471, 505. 

Scripture, the horse of, 13. 

Seat in riding, directions for, 232. 

Seclaoni, a breed of Arab horses, 33. 

Secretion, physiology of, 281; medi- 
cines for defective, 449. 

Seedy toe, nature and treatment of, 408. 



INDEX. 



579 



fs American Star, pedigree of, 
474, 4S2 ; character as a stallion, 482. 

Seliina (imp.), 53. 

Sensation, nerves of, supplied to the 
lips, 290. 

Servants' rooms in stables, 174. 

Setons, insertion of, 439. 

Seton needles, description of, 439 ; view 
of, 439. 

Shakspeare (trotter), 471, 472. 

Shakspear, Capt., his description of the 
Arab horse, 37. 

Shaving, 193. 

Sheaths, inflamed tendinous, nature and 
treatment of, 314. 

Sherman, by Justin Morgan, 476. 

Shoe, clenches for the, 200 ; losing the, 
200 ; removal of the, 199 ; view of a 
sound fore foot prepared for the, 426. 

Shoeing, 422 el acq. ; pricks in, 415. 

Shoulder, oblique, 22,- remarks on strain 
of, 317; symptoms of strain of, 317; 
treatment for strain of, 317; upright, 
lotion for galled, 22 ; galled, 317. 

Shouldering, the habit of, 245. 

Shoulder-joint lameness, nature and 
treatment of, 305. 

Shying, management of, 243. 

Siam, the horses of, 44. 

Sidebone, nature of, 300 ; symptoms 
of, 301; treatment of, 301. 

Side line, description and use of, 434. 

Sight, the organ of, 287. 

Sinews, strains of the back, 319. 

Singeing, 192; lamp for, 193. 

Sire and dam, relative influence of, 
486; condition of in breeding, 500. 

Sir Harry (thorough-bred), by Messen- 
ger, 472. 

Sir Henry (thorough-bred), influence 
of upon trotting stock, 474, 4&1, 

Sir Peter (trotter), 471, 472. 

Sir Solomon, by Messenger (thorough- 
bred), 472. 

Sir Tatton Sykes (English thorough- 
bred), 63, 75. 

Sir Walter Scott (pacer), 479. 

Sitfasts, treatment of, 391. 

Size, importance of in the stallion, 4S6 ; 
of the trotting horse, 495. 

Skeleton, the, 250 ; number of bones 
composing the, 252; the artificial, 
251. 



Skin, the organ of touch, 290 ; medi- 
cines for disordered state of the, 448. 

Skull, treatment of fractures of, 310. 

Sleepy staggers (See Apoplexy), 380. 

Smell, anatomy of the organ of, 287. 

Soiling, 223. 

Sole, anatomy of the, 293; treatment 
of bruises of, 416. 

Sontag (trotter), 479, 480. 

Sore-throat, treatment of, 350; treat- 
ment of catarrhal, 327. 

Sovereign (imp.), 103. 

Soundness, importance of, in sire and 
dam, 107, 4S6. 

South American horse, the, 45. 

Spark (imp.), 53. 

Spasm of the diaphragm, symptoms of, 
348 ; treatment of, 348. 

Spasmodic colic, treatment for, 361. 

Spavin, nature of bog, 313; nature of 
bone, 302; symptoms of bone, 303; 
treatment of bog, 313; treatment of 
bone, 303; remedy for, 455. 

Speed of the Arab horse, 37; import- 
ance of, in the stallion, 486; of the 
trotter, 495. 

Spinal column, bones composing the, 
252 ; general anatomy of the, 252. 

Spinal cord, the source of the power to 
move, 497. 

Spine, injury of the, causing paralysis, 
3S0; fractures of the, 310. 

Spleen, anatomy and function of the, 
283. 

Splints, definition of, 298 ; symptoms 
of, 298; treatment of, 299; remedy 
for, 455. 

St. Lawrence, influence of upon trot- 
ting stock, 476 ; character as a stal- 
lion, 476. 

Stable management, 177 ; vices and bad 
habits, 202. 

Stables, aspect of, 156 ; doors of, 161 ; 
drainage of, 163; coach house of, 
174; chaff or grain shoots in, 160; 
floors of, materials for, 161; enam- 
elled tiles for, 172; liftings, 168; 
foundations of, 157 ; gangway bail 
for, 170; granary of, 160; ground 
plans of, 174; harness room, for, 
173; hay-chamber of, 159; Lighting 
of, 165; mangers for, 170; material 
for mangers of, 170; necessity for 



5S0 



INDEX. 



airing new, 176 ; number of stalls in, 
157 ; plan of for three or four horses, 
176; proper temperature of, 200; 
racks for, 170 ; servants' rooms of, 
174; situation of, 155; stalls and 
loose boxes of, 157 ; the travis, 169 ; 
ventilation of, 165 ; ventilating win- 
dows in, 162; walls, lining of, 173; 
water pipes for, 165; water supply 
of, 165; windows for, 162. 

Stafford, tamed by Rarey, 128, 130, 131. 

Staggers, mad, nature and symptoms 
of, 375; mad, treatment of, 375; 
sleepy, 3S0 ; stomach, nature, and 
symptoms of, 353 ; stomach, treat- 
ment of, 354 ; remedy for, 453. 

Stallion, choosing a, for breeding pur- 
poses, 486 ; importance of a good 
pedigree in, 486 ; of soundness in, 
486 ; of size of, 486 ; of color of, 486. 

Stallions, list of, imported into Ame- 
rica, 461. 

Stalls, 157 ; iron fittings for, 172. 

Standing, attitude assumed in, 78. 

Strangulation of the bowels, nature and 
symptoms of, 364. 

Starting the horse in his various paces, 
modes of, 235. 

Stench traps, 164. 

Stifle joint, symptoms of strain of the, 
322 ; treatment of strain of the, 322. 

Stimulants, action of, 459; recipes for, 
459. 

Stings of insects, treatment of, 392. 

Stomach, anatomy of the, 282 ; medi- 
cines for debility of, 449 ; small, 29 ; 
staggers, 353. 

Stomachics, action of, 460 ; recipes for, 
460. 

Stonewall Jackson (trotter), 505. 

Strains, nature of, 316; of the back 
sinews, symptoms of, 319 ; of the back 
sinews, remarks on, 319; of the back 
sinews, treatment of, 320 ; of the back 
and loins, nature and symptoms, 316 ; 
of the back and loins, treatment of, 
316 ; of the coffin-joint, remarks on, 
318 ; of the coffin-joint, treatment of, 
318 ; of the hock, symptoms of, 322 ; 
of the hock, treatment of, 322 ; of the 
fetlock, remarks on, 318 ; of the fet- 
lock, treatment of the, 318 ; of the 
hip-joint, symptoms of, 322 ; of the 



hip -joint, treatment of, 322; of the 
knee, symptoms of, 317; of the knee, 
treatment of, 315; of the shoulder, 
symptoms of, 317; of the shoulder, 
treatment of, 317; of the stifle-joint, 
symptoms of, 322; of the stifle- 
joint, treatment of, 322; of the sus- 
pensory ligaments, symptoms of, 
318; of the suspensory ligaments, 
treatment of, 319. 

Strangles, symptoms of, 351 ; treatment 
of, 351. 

Stride, in trotting, essential elements 
of the, 495. 

String halt, nature and causes of, 381. 

Structure of bone, 248. 

Stumbling, management of, 246. 

Summering, 222. 

Sunstroke, nature of, 382; treatment 
of, 382. 

Superpurgation, symptoms of, 363 ; 
treatmeut of, 363 ; remedy for, 449. 

Surfeit, nature and symptoms of, 388; 
treatment of, 388. 

Surplice (English thorough-bred), 75. 

Suspensory ligaments, strain of the, 
symptoms of, 318; strain of the, 
treatment of, 319. 

Sweat, mode of giving the ordinary, 
210. 

Sweating, object of, 208; the ordinary, 
210. 

Swelled legs, inflammatory, treatment 
of, 393; ordinary, nature and symp- 
toms of, 393; ordinary, treatment of, 
393. 

Synovial membrane, nature and treat- 
ment of acute inflammation of, 313; 
nature and treatment of rheumatic 
inflammation of, 313 ; diseases of, 
312. 



Tacket (pacer), 483. 

Tacony (trotter), 505. 

Tail, anatomy of the, 255 ; of the tho- 
rough-bred race horse, 76. 

Tartary, the horses of, 43. 

Tattler (trotter), 483, 504. 

Teeth, after nine years, 264 ; at nine 
years, 264 : at about the eighth year, 
263 ; at the end of the first year, 258; 
bishoping of, 264 ; composition of, 



INDEX. 



581 



257 ; development of the, 257 ; dur- 
ing the second year, 259 ; during the 
third year, 259 ; horseman's nomen- 
clature of, 258 ; irregularities in the 
growth of, 265 ; lower nippers and 
tushes at five years, 262 ; mouth at 
three years, 260 ; mouth at four 
years, 260 ; mouth at five years, 261 ; 
of the very old horse, 264 ; shedding 
of, between four and a-half and five 
years, 261 ; the six year old mouth, 
263 ; view of the mouth at four and 
a-half years, 260 ; view of the upper 
nippers and tushes at five years, 261 ; 
upper nippers in the eight year old 
horse, 263 ; formula of, 257 ; seotion 
of incisor or nipper, 257 ; molar or 
grinder, 258 ; milk incisors, 25S ; 
canine teeth, or tushes, 258. 

Tendinous sheaths, imflammation of, 
314 ; treatment of inflamed, 314. 

Tendon, 268 ; disease of the, 311 ; in 
muscle, 269 ; treatment of small 
tumors on the, 312. 

Tetanus, nature of, 378 ; symptoms of, 
379 ; treatment of, 379. 

Thick wind, nature of, 347. 

Thiselo (see Fistula of the Withers). 

Thoracic, arch, anatomy of the, 254 ; 
organs, diseases of the, 326. 

Thorax, boundaries of, 273 ; contents 
of, 272 ; plan of the, 272. 

Thormanby (English thorough-bred), 
58. 

Thorns in the leg of the hunter, treat- 
ment of, 221. 

'Thorough-bred, the, 57 ; essentials in 
the, 60 ; external formation of, 61 ; 
general history of the American, 52 ; 
stoutness of the American, 54. 

Thoroughpin, nature and symptoms of, 
313 ; treatment of, 313 ; treatment 
of when in the bursa, 315. 

Thread worms, 368. 

Throat, treatment of sore, 350. 

Thrush, varieties of, 401 ; treatment 
of, 402. 

Tibia, fractures of the, 310. 

Tiles, enamelled for stables, 172. 

Tip (trotter), 479. 

Tippecanoe (pacer), 479. 

Tissue, fibrous, 268 ; white, 268 ; yel- 
low, 268 ; red, 268 ; chemical compo- 
sition of, 269. 

49* 



Toe, treatment of seedy, 408. 

Tom Chowder} 483. 

Tom Thumb (Webber's), influence upon 
trotting stock, 482. 

Tom Wonder, 483. 

Tongue, black (See Typhosus). 

Tonics, action of, 460 ; recipes for, 460. 

Toorkistan, the horses of, 42. 

Topgallant (trotter), 471, 472, 505. 

Touch, anatomy of the organ of, 290 ; 
sense of, necessary to the apprecia- 
tion of form, 290. 

Training colts to trot, 501. 

Training horses, Rarey's method, 128. 

Traumatics, action of, 460 ; recipes for, 
460. 

Traveller (imp.), 53. 

Travis, the, of stables, 168. 

Trevis, the, or break, 435. 

Trimming, 193. 

Trot, the, 86 ; action in the true, 88 ; 
starting into a, 236; the jog, S7 ; the 
flying, S7; dishing, in the, SS ; teach- 
ing the colt to, 501. 

Trotter, the American, 50, 467 et seq.; 
the Norfolk, 89, 470; early Ameri- 
can, 471 ; influence of imported tho- 
rough-breds, 471 ; influence of Cana- 
dian stallions, 474; trotting families, 
4S1; breeding of the, 485; principles 
of breeding of, 485 et seq. ; points of 
a, 495 ; elements of speed in, 497 ; 
training, 501 et seq. ; performances 
of, 504 et seq. 

Trotting, origination of, in England as 
a public amusement, 469 ; origina- 
tion of, in America as a public amuse- 
ment, 470 ; first match on record, 
470; establishment of trotting clubs, 
470; influence of imported thorough- 
breds upon the trotting stock of 
America, 471; relationship to pacing, 
4S0; principles of breeding aud train- 
ing, 485. 

Trouble (trotter), 471, 472. 

Trumpeting, nature of, 338. 

Trustee (imp.), 474, 505. 

True Briton, the founder of the Morgan 
stock, 48. 

True John (trotter), 480. 

Tumors, treatment of small, on the ten- 
dons, 312. 

Turkish bath, description of the, 213; 
plan of a, 214. 



& 



582 



INDEX. 



Turkish horse, the, 42. 
Turning out to grass, 225. 
Twitch, the, 435. 
Typhoid fever (See Typhosus). 
Typhosus, nature and symptoms of, 
418; treatment of, 419. 

Ulcers, lotions for foul, 459. 

Umpire (thoroughbred), 54. 

Unknown (pacer), 479. 

Unnerving, remarks on, 445. 

Unsoundness of the feet and legs, 
marshes useful in, 225. 

Urine, bloody, nature and symptoms 
of, 371; bloody, treatment of, 372; 
retention of, causes of, 373 ; retention 
of, treatment for, 373 ; bloody, medi- 
cines for, 453 ; medicines to increase 
the flow of, 457. 

Uterus, inversion of the, 374. 

Vagina, inflammation of the, 374; treat- 
ment for inflammation of the, 374. 

Vein, inflammation of, after bleeding, 
437. 

Venous blood, action of air on, 277. 

Ventilating shaft, 167 ; windows, 162. 

Ventilation of stables, 166. 

Vermifuges, action of, 461 ; recipes for, 
461. 

Vermont Black Hawk (also called 
Hill's), 476, 477; influence upon trot- 
ting stock, 476; character as a stal- 
lion, 477, 481. 

Vermont cart horse, the, 55. 

Vertebrae, anatomy of the, 253. 

Vices, out door, 243; treatment of, 
243; shying, 243; rearing, 244 
kicking, 245 ; lying down, 245 
plunging, 245 ; running away, 245 
stumbling, 246 ; cutting, 246; stable, 
remedies for, 202. 

Viscera, abdominal, diseases of the, 350. 

Vives, treatment of, 352. 

Vosburgh, by Mambrino Pilot, 484. 

Walk, action in the, 82 ; exceptional 
mode of starting for the, 82 ; mode 
of starting the horse into a, 235 ; of 
horses, the, 78 ; received interpreta- 
tion of the, 81 ; starting for the, 80 ; 
order of sequence of the feet in the, 79. 

Walking, rate of, 86. 

Warbles, treatment of, 391. 



War Eagle (trotter), conformation of, 
495. 

Warts, removal of, 396. 

Washes, action of, 459 ; recipes for, 459. 

Water in the chest (Hydrothorax), na- 
ture and treatment of, 345. 

Water pipes for stables, 165. 

Water, remarks on, 180 ; proper quan- 
tity of, 181; proper temperature of, 
182 ; quality of, 182. 

Weaving, remedy for, 205. 

Webber's Tom Thumb (trotter), influ ■ 
ence upon trotting stock, 482. 

AVeight, distribution of, 76. 

Western hemisphere, horses of the, 45. 

Whalebone (trotter), 471, 472. 

Wheezing, nature of, 338. 

Whip (imp.), 474. 

Whistling, nature of, 338. 

Why Not, by Messenger, 472. 

Wild Dayrell (English thorough-bred), 
75. 

Wild horse of America, Herbert's ac- 
count of the, 46. 

Wild Tartar horse, the, 43. 

Wilkes' Old Hautboy Mare (imp.), 53. 

Wind, broken, nature and symptoms 
of, 346 ; broken, treatment of, 347 ; 
thick, nature of, 347. 

Windows for stables, 162. 

Wind-galls, nature and treatment of, 
314 ; remedy for, 458. 

Withers, fistula of the, nature of, 306; 
fistula of the, symptoms of, .306; fis- 
tula of the, treatment of, 306. 

Woodpecker (trotter), 479. 

Work, preparation for, 206 ; treatment 
of, after, 220. 

Worms, intestinal, 367 ; symptoms of 
intestinal, 367 ; treatment of intesti- 
nal, 968. 

Worm medicines, action of, 461 ; re- 
cipes, 461. 

Wounds, medicines to destroy proud 
flesh in, 455; of joints, treatment of, 
324. 

Xenophon, his directions for purchas- 
ing a horse, 14. 

Young Bashaw, 474 ; character of, as a 

stallion, 481. 
Young Morrill (trotter), pedigree of, 

511. 



